<p>The Academy Street Historic District is a historic district located along that street between Livingston and Montgomery streets in the city of Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. It is a few blocks from US 9, just northeast of Springside, Matthew Vassar&#39;s never-completed estate that is now a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Its 140 acres (56 ha) contain 46 buildings, mostly houses, in a variety of 19th and early 20th-century architectural styles. It was the first planned neighborhood in the city.</p><br>
<p>Originally part of Bronson Smith&#39;s 1805 farm, the land today part of the district was sold to a group of speculators in 1836. While the financial crisis that ensued the following year set back home construction, later on in the 19th century the purchase proved fruitful as many, many homes were built on it in a mix of styles, with houses near the north end of the district, closer to downtown Poughkeepsie, having smaller lots and yards than the ones further away. Christ Church, also built during this time, remains largely unaltered and is considered a contributing property.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1970s, 85% of the residents voted in favor of establishing the district, after seeing how successful the nearby Garfield Place Historic District had been at enhancing property values and preserving that neighborhood&#39;s historic character. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. The district designation has spurred the redevelopment and restoration of homes within and has been used as a selling point by real estate agents.</p><br>
<p>Today it is one of three historic districts recognized under city zoning and subject to special architectural rules enforced by the citys Historic District and Landmark Preservation Commission (HDLPC). The HDLPCs jurisdiction over the district is not supreme; in 1986 the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation ruled that the city&#39;s Planning Board was to be lead agency and have primary jurisdiction over a proposed 18-unit condominium complex within the district.</p><br>
<p>Notable former residents include William Allen Adriance (154 Academy St), farming equipment manufacturer, father of actress Jan Sterling, and founder of Adriance Memorial Library, the main public library in Poughkeepsie.</p><br>
<p>The Robert Frost Farm, also known as the Homer Noble Farm, is a National Historic Landmark in Ripton, Vermont. It is a 150 acre farm property off Vermont Route 125 in the Green Mountains where American poet Robert Frost  lived and wrote in the summer and fall months from 1939 until his death in 1963. The property, historically called the Homer Noble Farm, includes a nineteenth-century farmhouse and a rustic wooden writing cabin . The property is now owned by Middlebury College. The grounds are open to the public during daylight hours.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Frost Farm is set about 3 mi east of the center of Ripton, down an access road on the north side of Vermont Route 125. The 150 acre property is surrounded on three sides by the Green Mountain National Forest, and partially abuts Middlebury Colleges Bread Loaf Campus property. A cleared meadow, located in the western portion of the property, is where its buildings are located. The principal buildings are the 19th-century farmhouse, and a modest cabin in which Frost did most of his writing. The farmhouse is a -story wood frame clapboarded structure, and is set on the west side of the end of the access road. The cabin, a roughly square log structure with a gable roof, stands near the northern edge of the cleared area. It has a screened porch on the west side and a shed-roof woodshed to the north. Its interior is divided into a living area occupying the southern half, with the northern part taken up by a kitchen, bath, and two small bedrooms. The area between the cabin and the house is taken up by a small apple orchard established and tended by Frost. Southwest of the house is a small shed, and on the east side of the drive are the foundational remnants of a barn that was standing during Frosts ownership.</p><br>
<p>Robert Frost (1874-1963) was one of the United States most celebrated poets, publishing eleven volumes of poetry and winning four Pulitzer Prizes. Frost purchased this property in 1940, and lived here each summer and fall until his death. Five of his volumes were written here, most notably A Witness Tree, the 1943 Pulitzer Prize winner. In the cabin, where he did most of his writing, he kept an extensive collection of literature, which was donated by his family to the Jones Public Library of Amherst, Massachusetts. Frosts Morris Chair, originally in the cabin, is now on display at the Middlebury College Davis Family Library. The property was acquired by Middlebury College in 1966, which has maintained but not substantially improved it.</p><br>
<p>The Andrew M. Cox Ranch Site is a historic collection of ruined buildings and structures in Austin, Texas, United States. The site is located on either side of Barton Creek near the intersection of Loop 360 and the Mopac Expressway. It included a small collection of wall enclosures  and wagon tracks in the native limestone.</p><br>
<p>The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<p>The Rainey Street Historic District is a street of historic homes, many of the bungalow style, in downtown Austin, Texas.</p><br>
<p>Rainey Street is positioned near Lady Bird Lake and Interstate 35 in the southeast corner of downtown. Though 21 buildings are specifically identified as a part of the historic district, the stretch of Rainey between River and Driskill includes 31 buildings built before 1934, giving the neighborhood a historic character relative to other areas of the city. The district includes 120 acre from 70 to 97 Rainey Street. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. Since the early 2010s, the formerly sleepy residential street has turned into a popular nightlife district. Much of the historic homes have been renovated into bars and restaurants, many of which feature large porches and outdoor yards for patrons.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Rainey Street neighborhood was first developed in 1884 by cattle baron Jesse Driskill and Frank Rainey, who subdivided 16 acres of land between the Colorado River and Water Street (now known as Cesar Chavez Blvd.) The neighborhood was initially populated by white, middle class tradesman, though by the 1920s the area began to see a larger influx of working class families and ethnic minorities. Many of the original homes in the neighborhood were lost in a flood in 1935. The construction of Interstate 35 left the Rainey Street neighborhood "isolated" from the remainder of Austin&#39;s residential neighborhoods; by 1978, a report estimated that more than half of the structures on Rainey Street were "dilapidated". In 1985, amid fears of high-density commercial and residential redevelopment, the neighborhood was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Redevelopment</h3><br>
<p>The Rainey Street neighborhood was rezoned as part of Austin&#39;s central business district in 2004. The hope at the time was to encourage development near the Austin Convention Center and the since-built Emma S. Barrientos Mexican American Cultural Center. But while grander development has stalled, bars and eateries have flocked to Rainey, since CBD zoning enables traffic-heavy cocktail bar or restaurant use without any additional zoning request. As such, old bungalows have been fixed up and turned into bars and cocktail lounges with ample backyards and porches. Indeed, there are many new bars under construction on Rainey</p><br>
<p>Street: Bangers Sausage House and Beer Garden, the Blackheart, Javelina, Jack and Dianes and Rainey Street Bar are all under various stages of construction/rehabilitation.</p><br>
<p>Rainey Street status in the National Register has become controversial as land values surrounding the district have skyrocketed, leaving most of the single family homes left worth significantly less than the land they sit on. New developments nearby, including multiple high-rise condominium buildings and Austins new Mexican-American Cultural Center, have contributed greatly to an increase in higher land values.</p><br>
<p>Deliberations are underway within the city government to develop a long-term plan for the area that allows redevelopment while preserving the streets historic and residential character. Since none of the individual buildings within the district have been designated as historic structures, they are eligible for demolition, though each building destroyed must be approved by the citys historic landmark commission.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>On the Texas-themed TV series King of the Hill, the main characters live on "Rainey Street" in the fictional Arlen, Texas. Show creator Mike Judge is an Austin resident.</p><br>
<p>The Rosewater School, now known as the Rosewater Apartments, is located in South Omaha, Nebraska, United States. Built in 1910, the building was named an Omaha Landmark on September 18, 1984, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>About</h2><br>
<p>Named for Edward Rosewater, the founder of the Omaha Bee newspaper and organizer of the Omaha School District, the Rosewater School is called "a fine example of the Second Renaissance Revival style of architecture." The brick, two-story structure was converted to apartments in 1985.</p><br>
<p>The Robbins School, originally called Franklin School, is located at 4302 South 39th Avenue in South Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It was built in 1910 to serve a newly established and growing Polish community in south Omaha. A 2000 rehabilitation converted the former school to rental residential use.</p><br>
<p>A pedimented central portico, pilasters, Palladian window and detailed cornice make Robbins School one of the best Neoclassical Revival style buildings remaining in Omaha. After closing in 1994, the building was renovated in the 1990s and converted into apartments.</p><br>
<p>The building was originally named Franklin School. In 1928 two local boys whose last name was Robbins rushed into their burning house to save their invalid mother. One of the boys died in his heroic attempt. The second survived, only to be killed later in the same year in an unrelated sledding accident.</p><br>
<p>North Hamilton Elementary School, formerly the Jennings High School, is a historic school in Jennings, Florida. The high school was built in 1927 and converted to an elementary school in 1965. On January 10, 2008, it was added to the USA National Register of Historic Places. It is a part of the Hamilton County School District.</p><br>
<p>North Hamilton Elementary was consolidated into a new elementary school, Hamilton County Elementary School, located in an unincorporated area south of Jasper. Its opening was scheduled for August 2017.</p><br>
<p>Carroll Avenue is a street in Angelino Heights, one of the older neighborhoods of Los Angeles. It consists of Victorian-era houses within a picturesque neighborhood and has served as the backdrop for countless motion pictures.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Carroll Avenue is one of Los Angeles first suburbs, and bears its name well, as it brings the city many tourists and visitors. The houses, or rather Victorian manors, are now used as private homes, as they were in the 19th century. Some of the more well known residents from the Victorian era include: merchant Aaron P. Philips in 1887, real estate agent Charles C. Haskin in 1894, and warehouse operator Michael Sanders in 1887. One of Los Angeles first City Councilmen, Daniel Innes, resided at 1329 Carroll Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The house at 1345 Carroll Avenue was used in the final scene of Michael Jackson&#39;s Thriller.</p><br>
<p>The house at 1329 Carroll Avenue was used as the home for the main characters in the supernatural drama television series Charmed.</p><br>
<p>The house at 1324 Carroll Avenue was used for the main home in Adam Sandlers 2006 comedy Grandmas Boy.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>The entire 1300 block of Carroll Avenue was listed under the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Several individual residences along Carroll Avenue have been named as Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments, including the following:</p><br>
<p>1337 Carroll Avenue (September 1962)</p><br>
<p>1330 Carroll Avenue (May 24, 1967)</p><br>
<p>1329 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1345 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1355 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1316 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1320 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1324 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1344 Carroll Avenue (February 3, 1971)</p><br>
<p>1325 Carroll Avenue (January 3, 1973)</p><br>
<p>1321 Carroll Avenue (July 13, 1977)</p><br>
<p>1407 Carroll Avenue (May 3, 1978)</p><br>
<p>1411 Carroll Avenue (May 3, 1978)</p><br>
<h2>Gallery of Homes on Carroll Avenue</h2><br>
<p>The Millar-Wheeler House is a historic home located at 1423 Genesee Street in Utica, Oneida County, New York. It was built in 1866, and consists of a three-story, square, brick main block and two-story, frame rear wing. It features an ornate Italianate style entrance portico topped by an oriel window, a low-pitched hipped roof with broad eaves and belvedere, and scrolled brackets. It is operated as Rosemont Inn, a bed and breakfast.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.</p><br>
<p>The Joel N. Cornish House is located in South Omaha, Nebraska. The 1886 construction is considered an "excellent example of the French Second Empire style." The house was converted into apartments after the Cornish family moved out in 1911.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The house is a three-story mansion with a full basement with an addition constructed in 1911. The wooden roof consists of tongue and groove joint construction, with the floor made of mosaic tile. A broad central concrete stairway leads up to the front doors, and the exterior walls are load-bearing brick. The brick walls of the addition are broken up by small, evenly spaced, double hung windows in vertically parallel rows. The foundation is also brick, in places faced with rough-hewn sandstone blocks.</p><br>
<p>Two notable features of the house are the porches. The porch on the east facade is supported by triple wooden corner columns. The wooden porch on the south facade has been established as an original part of the building by a family photograph. Its ornate carving embellishes the tongue and groove joint construction in the floor and ceiling. French doors provided access to the house.</p><br>
<p>The slate mansard roof, with arched dormer windows is accentuated by cornices at its base and top. The slates are several different patterns set in rows of three; the central east facade of the roof is crowned by a wooden cupola with windows and a spire. Double-hung arched windows are arranged in horizontally and vertically parallel double rows equally spaced around the house. Two porches rise the entire height of the rectangular, three-story addition to the original house.</p><br>
<p>Several alterations have altered the original appearance of the exterior. Some of the changes include the removal of a wrought iron fence crowning the entire roof and the small roof of the cupola. A small balustrade that was once located above the east porch between the two bay windows of the second floor was removed, as well. Several onion-shaped ornaments no longer cap the dormer on the third story and the round windows in the roof of the cupola. Also, a small unornamented service porch on the south side of the southwest corner, has been removed, although the door still remains.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the late 1800s, the original "Gold Coast" area of Omaha lay south of the business district, roughly from Pierce to Dorcas between 8th & 11th Streets. Within the borders could be found the most elegant homes of many of Omaha&#39;s most successful citizens. Much of the land which had once belonged to the estate of Adolph Kountze and had been subdivided into the fashionable new Forrest Hills addition. It was here that Colonel Joel Northrop Cornish selected a site at 1404 South 10th Street for his home in Omaha. Colonel Cornish came to Omaha in 1886 from Hamburg, Iowa but he was an easterner by birth, and his new mansion was to reflect much of that taste.</p><br>
<p>The Cornish house was built in a period when Omaha was witnessing an influx of cultured eastern families who brought with them wealth and professional skills. Homes in this period were often designed by eastern architects who transplanted design forms of European origins. They added American touches of more elaborate millwork in the exterior detailing. The almost pure French Second Empire Cornish house was such a structure, but the front veranda shows a clear manifestation of the American taste in residential architecture. Each member of the family had his own sitting room attached to his bedroom suite. The fifteen-room mansion with its thirteen-foot ceilings, beautiful floors bordered with parquet woodwork, and four fireplaces, was the showplace of an already elegant neighborhood. The third floor ballroom echoed with music and parties which included Henry Fonda.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Cornish died June 7, 1908, at the age of 82. The family continued to maintain the house for a while, but soon plans were drawn to convert the mansion to apartments. The huge kitchen with its pantries was partitioned off into smaller rooms. The first floors lavish rooms were converted into two separate apartments. Over the years an addition was constructed at the rear of the original home. There was no attempt to follow the style of the original architecture. The high ceilings in the main house were retained. the original Cornish house remained with the Cornish heirs until June 13, 1956, when Virginia Cornish Fischer sold it to Carl Meyers. On September 15, 1958, the house became the property of the Grace Bible Institute and is now used as apartments.</p><br>
<p>The Keeline Building is an office and retail building located in downtown Omaha, Nebraska at 319 South 17th Street. The mixed-use building was completed in 1911 just before construction of the neighboring Douglas County Courthouse was completed, the seven-story Keeline was designed by locally renowned architect John Latenser, Sr. The Building was part of a historic redevelopment in 2023 revitalizing the building into premium modern office with its original historic charm. The Keeline is built in the Georgian Revival style, said to represent "the prosperous commercial development in Omaha during this period." In 2010 the building was sold to KMC Properties LLC, of Council Bluffs, Iowa.</p><br>
<p>Buena Vista Winery is a winery located in Sonoma, California, United States. It is the second oldest winery in California after the D&#39;Agostini Winery, which was founded a year prior in 1856. It was founded by Agoston Haraszthy in 1857. The winery is located on its original grounds, just east of Sonoma, California.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Buena Vista Winery was founded in 1857 by Agoston Haraszthy a Hungarian from Budapest.</p><br>
<p>Phylloxera would destroy the vineyards just before World War I and Prohibition would postpone any hopes of reopening the winery. In 1941, 435-acres of Buena Vista land was acquired by United Press news executive Frank Bartholomew at auction. He replanted some of the original vineyards and in 1943 he bonded the winery and became one of the first entrepreneurs to invest in the California wine industry after Prohibition. He would sell the property in 1968 to Vernon Underwood of Young&#39;s Market. Bartholomew would retain most of the original vineyards, which would form the basis for Hacienda Wine Cellars.</p><br>
<p>Underwood planted a large vineyard in the Carneros region and built a new modern winery facility. The West German wine and spirits company A. Racke purchased Buena Vista in 1979. In 1984 they acquired 1,000 acres, making Buena Vista the largest vineyard estate in the area. Today, the winery sits on its original property, and is owned by the Boisset Collection, led by Jean-Charles Boisset, who purchased the winery and the historic property in May 2011. The original hand-dug caves are still on site, and have been re-opened to visitors for tours after a reconstruction effort led by Boisset. The visitor center, located inside the original wine press house, provides access to the original champagne cellar.</p><br>
<p>Buena Vista is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a California Historical Landmark. It is additionally a Sonoma County Historic Landmark and is included on the Sonoma County Historical Society list of landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>Wine</h2><br>
<p>The winery produces 100,000 cases of wine from such grape varieties as cabernet sauvignon, syrah, pinot noir, merlot, sauvignon blanc, zinfandel and chardonnay, as well as a host of wines from unique historical varietals under the "Vinicultural Society" label. The winemaker is Brian Maloney, with Consulting Winemaker David Ramey.</p><br>
<h2>Haraszthy Villa</h2><br>
<p>A reconstruction of Haraszthy Villa (also called the Palladian Villa) is located on Castle Road near Buena Vista Winery. The building, a part of the Buena Vista Winery California Historical Landmark title as #892-1, is a reconstruction of the original villa built by Haraszthy in 1857. It looks over the original Haraszthy planted vineyards. The reconstructed villa was commissioned by Antonia Bartholomew in 1988.</p><br>
<p>Buena Vista Winery - September 2024 - Sarah Stierch 01.jpgA historic wine cave at Buena Vista Winery in September 2024.</p><br>
<p>Fort Washita is the former United States military post and National Historic Landmark located in Durant, Oklahoma on SH 199. Established in 1842 by General  Zachary Taylor to protect citizens of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations from the Plains Indians, it was later abandoned by Federal forces at the beginning of the American Civil War. Confederate troops held the post until the end of the war when they burned the remaining structures. It was never reoccupied by the United States military. After years in private hands the Oklahoma Historical Society bought the fort grounds in 1962 and restored the site. In 2017, the Chickasaw Nation purchased Fort Washita from the Oklahoma Historical Society and assumed responsibility for the site and its management. Today, Fort Washita is a tourist attraction and hosts several events throughout the year. In August 2023, the Fort Washita Historic Site was placed into federal trust with the USA government.</p><br>
<p>https://reader.mediawiremobile.com/ChickasawTimes/issues/208621/viewer</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The site is located about 12 miles northwest of the present-day town of Durant, Oklahoma, on Oklahoma State Highway 199, just north of the confluence of the Washita River with the Red River. The original fortification was a massive expanse of over seven square miles, containing far more than ninety buildings and sites. It was not abandoned until after the end of the war, in 1865.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Five Civilized Tribes removed to the Indian Territory</h3><br>
<p>Eager to gain access to the lands of the Five Civilized Tribes in the southern United States the Federal government passed the Indian Removal Act into law on May 26, 1830. The first of the Indians to be removed, the Choctaws, signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek on September 27, 1830, effectively ceding their native lands in Mississippi and Alabama to the United States in exchange for lands in the Indian Territory. After traveling on the Choctaw Trail of Tears the Choctaws settled in the new Choctaw Nation, the southern part of the Indian Territory bordering the Red River.</p><br>
<p>The Cross Timbers, a thick line of nearly impassable trees and brush running from north to south, created an effective east–west barrier separating the flat, dry lands inhabited by the plains Indians to the west from the rolling prairies to the east where the Five Civilized Tribes were locating. These indigenous tribes included the Comanche, Wichita, Caddoes, and Kiowa. They occasionally threatened the removed tribes with raids. The Choctaws mostly settled in the eastern part of their territory since the western end was less secure against raids from the plains Indians, and they had protection from federal troops located at Fort Towson.</p><br>
<h3>Dodge-Leavenworth Expedition</h3><br>
<p>The first official contact between the United States and the plains Indians was during the Dodge-Leavenworth Expedition in 1834. Camp Washita, the precursor to Fort Washita, was established near the mouth of the Washita River to serve as a base of operations for the area. Two roads were cleared to the area, one from Fort Gibson to the north and one to Fort Towson to the east. Camp Washita was abandoned later that year.</p><br>
<h3>Chickasaw removal</h3><br>
<p>The Chickasaws were removed to the Indian Territory in 1837, paying $530,000 to the Choctaws for the right to live in their lands. After removal to the Indian Territory the Chickasaws were reluctant to settle in their district, composed of the west and central area of the Choctaw lands. The area was not secure against the plains Indians, since the closest federal garrison, at Fort Towson, was too far away to protect the area effectively. In 1838 the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Western Territory, William Armstrong, asked the War Department to build a military post near the mouth of the Washita River to secure the area so the Chickasaws could move into their assigned territory.</p><br>
<p>Captain T. A. Blake led a company of Dragoons from Fort Towson to the site of Fort Washita in late 1841.</p><br>
<h3>Location and construction</h3><br>
<p>In response to the need to defend the removed Indians on the frontier the United States Army authorized the construction of a fort on the Choctaw lands west of Fort Towson. General Zachary Taylor, as commander of the Second Military Department in the Southwest, chose the site for Fort Washita in 1842 on high ground a mile and a half east of the Washita River and 18 miles north of its junction with the Red River. At the time the Red River was the southern border of the Indian Territory with new Republic of Texas. The fort was surrounded by rolling prairie. The nearest military post at this time was Fort Towson 80 miles to the east.</p><br>
<p>Fort Washita sat at a strategic point on the frontier. In addition to being located near the Red and Washita rivers there existed an ancient north–south trail through the area. In the Indian Territory this route was known as the Texas Road, leading from Missouri to Texas and beyond. This route was called the old Preston Trail after it crossed into Texas on the Red River near Preston Bend at Coffees Trading Post and later Colberts Ferry. Fort Washita became a major junction on this road. Later the Shawnee Cattle Trail used this north–south route and, just prior to the Civil War, the Butterfield Overland Stage crossed just east of Fort Washita.</p><br>
<p>Fort Washita was connected to Fort Towson and Fort Gibson by military roads constructed earlier. Later military roads connected Fort Washita with forts Arbuckle and Sill.</p><br>
<p>The Cross Timbers were located near Fort Washita, about 19 miles west of the Washita River.</p><br>
<p>Construction at Fort Washita began in the spring of 1842. The Chickasaw Indian Agency was built early on as a one-story log building with four rooms in a group of trees on the edge of the prairie 600 yards west of Fort Washita near the springs. Construction was carried out mostly by Companies A and F of the Second Dragoons, with a temporary log barracks in 1842. There were supply difficulties, since the fort was located so far on the frontier. Most materials had to be taken from the area, with a few supplies being shipped from Fort Towson.</p><br>
<p>Troops from Fort Washita were ordered to protect Texas frontier from Indian attacks in 1842 so Texans could muster against a supposed invasion from Mexico.</p><br>
<p>Fort Washita was almost abandoned in 1843 before it was fully occupied. General Taylor learned in March 1843 that the War Department was considering abandoning it. After Taylor testified to the fort&#39;s valuable location the War Department approved the plans to occupy the fort, and the United States Army occupied the post on April 23, 1843.</p><br>
<p>Bean Starr, one of the Starr gang, died at the hospital at Fort Washita after being wounded at a shootout on the Washita River 25 miles above the fort in the Autumn of 1844.</p><br>
<p>Had corral, stable area, blacksmith, farrier shops.</p><br>
<p>In 1845 Fort Washita was the only frontier fort not accessible by steamboat and had to rely on the interior for its supply.</p><br>
<h3>The Mexican–American War</h3><br>
<p>When the Mexican–American War began in May 1846 activity increased dramatically at Fort Washita. As a United States military post near Texas the fort served as a staging point for the war. Traffic on the Texas Road heading south increased during and after the war. During the war years the average garrison of 150 troops increased to almost 2000 troops. During this era Fort Washita served as the site of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian Agencies. The Mexican–American War ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848.</p><br>
<p>The Chickasaws met at Boiling Springs near Fort Washita in 1846 and adopted a constitution. They met again at Boiling Springs on October 13, 1848, and created a more formal constitution, creating their own government separate from the Choctaws. As the Chickasaws moved into their own country near and west of Fort Washita they increasingly needed protection from the fort against the plains Indians.</p><br>
<p>The temporary log barracks was replaced after the construction of the south barracks from limestone in 1849.</p><br>
<p>Commanded by Dixon S. Miles in late 1849 and early 1851.</p><br>
<p>Major Daniel Ruggles served at Fort Washita from 1849 to 1851 after the Mexican–American War and eventually commanded the fort. He was popular, and the small settlement west of the fort was named Rugglesville after him. It was sometimes called Rucklesville and later Hatsboro.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the Mexican–American War the 2nd Artillery Regiment, commanded by Colonel Braxton Bragg and made famous at the Battle of Buena Vista, was assigned to the fort. Bragg was later a General in the Confederate Army.</p><br>
<h3>Moving frontier and the Gold Rush</h3><br>
<p>Beginning after the discovery of gold in California in 1848 many settlers bound for California traveled through Fort Washita headed west. Many emigrants to California chose a more southern route to avoid the cold winters, the snow, and cholera outbreaks that plagued the northern routes. The major obstacle to using the southern route was the indigenous plains Indians that lived along this route. Travelers gathered in large groups for protection while crossing to California. "It was customary for the emigrating parties to rendezvous at Fort Washita, where detachments would consolidate, elect their officers and make their final preparations before crossing Red River into Texas and straightening out on their long southwestern tangent to El Paso." In 1850 General Arbuckle, commander at Fort Smith, ordered the establishment of a fort west of Fort Washita to aid the protection of California emigrants. This fort became Fort Arbuckle.</p><br>
<p>Fort Worth was established June 6, 1849. The distance between Fort Worth and Fort Washita is 120 miles.</p><br>
<p>General Belknap, commander of Fort Arbuckle died on November 10, 1851, on an ambulance between Preston, Texas and Fort Washita bound for Fort Gibson to see his family. He was interred at Fort Washita.</p><br>
<p>The headquarters of the Seventh Military Department was transferred to Fort Washita in 1853. With it Major T. H Holmes commanded the fort.</p><br>
<p>The west barracks was built in 1856 from native limestone.</p><br>
<p>The two artillery batteries at Fort Washita were transferred to Fort Monroe, leaving on December 25, 1856.</p><br>
<p>By 1858 there was an east barracks, hospital, and surgeon&#39;s quarters all built from native stone, in addition to the wooden structures. A corral and stables on the hillside southwest of the fort supported cavalry operations. Cavalry comprised the bulk of the forces assigned to Fort Washita until the 1850s when it served as a United States Army Field Artillery School. Several Artillery units were assigned to the fort during this time in addition to infantry and cavalry. Forts Smith, Washita, Belknap and Arbuckle were abandoned temporarily in 1858 so their troops could be sent to Utah during the Utah War. The Fort closed on February 17, 1858, but was reoccupied later that year on December 29 after increased Comanche activity.</p><br>
<p>Fort Washita&#39;s importance as a military post waned as the frontier moved westward. The Chickasaw and Choctaw nations grew more settled and incursions by the plains Indians lessened. As the frontier moved westward new military posts were established farther west to protect the new frontier. The Army established Fort Cobb in October 1859.</p><br>
<p>Many men who served at Fort Washita would go on to become famous, including Randolph B. Marcy, George McClellan, William G. Belknap and Theophilus H. Holmes.</p><br>
<h3>The Civil War and abandonment</h3><br>
<p>Federal troops still occupied Fort Washita when the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. Expecting war, Colonel William Emory had concentrated all of his Federal troops from Forts Arbuckle and Cobb at Fort Washita. When news of Fort Sumter reached Emory on April 16 he led his forces to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, pursued by 4000 Texas militia one day behind them. Afterwards the Confederate forces seized Fort Washita. Both the Choctaw and Chickasaw were allied with the Confederacy throughout the duration of the war. During the Civil War Fort Washita saw no action, though it was an important supply depot for the Confederates in the Indian Territory. It also served as military hospital. Fort Washita became the headquarters of Brigadier General Douglas Cooper, who assumed command after the battle of Honey Springs. Other Confederate commanders during the Civil War include General Albert Pike, served as commander of Fort Washita for a short time before establishing Fort McCulloch a few miles to the east, and General Stand Watie. Near the end of the war, Confederate forces burned the existing buildings and abandoned the post. A confederate cemetery remains to this day on the fort grounds. United States military graves were exhumed and reinterred at Fort Gibson near Muskogee, Oklahoma.</p><br>
<p>After the Civil War Fort Washita was never reoccupied by the United States military and the grounds fell into disuse. On July 1, 1870, the War Department handed over the fort grounds to the Department of the Interior. The passage of the Dawes Act in 1887 and the Atoka Agreement in 1897 divided the communal lands of the Chickasaw Nation, including Fort Washita, into allotments owned by individual Chickasaw citizens. The Colberts, a prominent Chickasaw family, received the allotment of grounds including the fort. Department of Interior turned land over to Abbie Davis Colbert and her son. Charles Colbert turned the existing east barracks into a personal home and the site was used as a farm for many years. The remaining buildings were used in a farming capacity. The Colberts also used the cemetery as a family cemetery. The old west barracks continued to serve as the Colberts&#39; household until it burned down in 1917.</p><br>
<p>Douglas H. Cooper, once commander of Fort Washita and later commander of Confederate Troops in Indian Territory, continued to live at the fort after the Civil War. He died there on April 29, 1879, and was buried in the old fort cemetery in an unmarked grave.</p><br>
<h2>National Historic Landmark</h2><br>
<p>In 1927, Dr. William Brown Morrison, a history professor at Southeastern Oklahoma State University (then Southeastern State Normal School) visited the ruins of the fort and reported that "while rapidly disintegrating and disappearing, these ruins are still very extensive and very interesting to those who may be inclined to study the history of Oklahoma in the days long gone by."</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s there was a renewed interest in Oklahoma&#39;s Historical Sites. The Oklahoma Historical Society was able to determine that at the Fort Washita site there were 86 structures, 50 foundations and 2 structures still standing.</p><br>
<p>Ward S. Merrick Sr. of Ardmore, Oklahoma contributed funds to the Oklahoma Historical Society for the purchase of the site from the Colbert family in 1962. At the time, William "Buck" Loper and his wife, Lela, lived in the current park headquarters. During the sale of the property to the Historical Society, the Colberts allowed the Lopers to stay until their death around 1963. They are both buried in the fort cemetery. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 and in 1967 the Oklahoma State Legislature approved $10,000 for the reconstruction and restoration of the fort&#39;s grounds. In 1971 the Oklahoma Historical Society conducted an archeological dig and rebuilt the south barracks.</p><br>
<p>Today the Fort Washita site is home to Fort Washita Historic Site and Museum, Civil War reenactments, and a yearly Fur Trade Rendezvous.</p><br>
<p>On September 26, 2010, the reconstructed South Barracks was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<h2>Commanders</h2><br>
<p>James Dean, Captain, 3rd Infantry May 1834-</p><br>
<p>George A. H. Blake, Captain, April 1842-</p><br>
<p>Thomas Faunteroy, Major 2nd class, October 1844-</p><br>
<p>Benjamin L Beall Captain assumed command December 1842.</p><br>
<p>W.J. Newton, Jan 1842</p><br>
<p>Benjamin L. Beall, Capt. Feb 1842</p><br>
<p>Benjamin L. Beall, Brev Maj, April 1843</p><br>
<p>W.S. Harney, Brev Colo., June 1843</p><br>
<p>B.L. Beall, Brev Major, Jan 1844-May 1844, Mar-May 1845</p><br>
<p>W.S. Harney, Brev Colonel (2nd Dragoons) June 1844</p><br>
<p>Theophilus Hunter Holmes May 1851 to December 1855.</p><br>
<p>The E.W. Marland Mansion is a 43,561 ft&sup2; Mediterranean Revival-style mansion located in Ponca City, Oklahoma, United States. Built by oil baron and philanthropist Ernest Whitworth  Marland, as a display of wealth at the peak of the 1920s oil boom, the house is one of the largest residences in the southwestern United States, and is known as the "Palace on the Prairie." It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1973, and is now a museum open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Marland Mansion was built on the side of a small hill, higher on the west side than on the east, in an abandoned stone quarry that determined the placement for the mansion, as the excavations for the quarry was used for the construction of the swimming pool. Designed by prominent Tulsa architect John Duncan Forsyth, the mansion was constructed between 1925 and 1928, and influenced by the Palazzo Davanzati in Florence, Italy that Marland had visited while traveling in Europe. Crafted from light-colored, rusticated limestone blocks, quarried on-site, and set in concrete on a steel frame, the roughly u-shaped layout is 78 feet wide and 184 feet long. The main entrance is found on the west front and features an arched and buttressed porte-cochère with gabled, clay tiled roof, that shelters the arched, 11-panel, double wood entrance doors custom-made in New York. Under each of the four inside corners of the porte-cochère are sculptures of Marland&#39;s four hunting dogs, carved by Italian sculptor, Ernest G. Pellegrini. The windows with black painted metal surrounds, to contrast with the light colored stone, are asymmetrically arranged. The first level windows feature wrought iron grill work, while those on the second level are smaller, or have wrought iron balconies.</p><br>
<p>Large raised terraces are found on the north, south and east fronts, however they do not interconnect. The south fronts notable features include triple arched windows giving an arcaded effect and accented with stone balconies with flower carved corbels that flank the facade on the upper level. The drainage system is also exposed and displays the Marland monogram and the date "1927." The water from the system drains through a sculptured carving of Pan into a water feature located in a niche in the side of the terrace wall. Giving access to the terrace is a semicircular arched glass and wrought iron double doorway. The fanlight features a sunburst pattern with the tracery continuing down into the sidelights and doors with vertical bars. The arched doorway is replicated on the north facade in a set of three, continuing the arcaded effect. This arcade is highlighted by a stone cantilevered staircase to the left, with ornately carved corbels of mythological creatures leading to a second floor balcony adjacent to E.W. Marlands quarters. The east front is the only one that features a symmetrical facade, and where all three stories are evident due to the house being built on a hill. The first level has a set of three arched doorways that enclose a lounge directly below a terrace found on the second level, centered by a single arched entryway. On the third level are flanking rectangular windows with wrought iron balconies, mirroring those on the west front, centered by three small square shaped fenestrations.</p><br>
<p>The overhanging hipped roof, with stone corbeling along the roof line, features red clay tiles pierced by five large stone chimneys topped with Mediterranean style chimney caps. There was a sixth chimney situated on the north side of the house towards the rear that was destroyed in a storm and never rebuilt.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<h3>First floor</h3><br>
<p>The mansion is spread out over three floors featuring a total of 55 rooms, including 10 bedrooms, 12 bathrooms, 7 fireplaces, and 3 kitchens illuminated by 861 light bulbs. The layout of the house is generally a central hall plan, and as a result of being built on the side of a hill, the entrance hall is located on the second floor. Defining the space is a large stone arch flanked by two lower rectangular openings, through which a short flight of stairs lead to a landing behind the arch featuring a balustrade. Overhead are gilded domed ceilings, and the space is embellished with two stone carved night owls, peering out of the stairway niches through glowing red eyes. Below the arch, a grand stairway leads down to the first level, and to the Hall of Merriment. The hall is named due to the four whimsical carvings of men representing "Eat, drink and be merry," with the fourth figure taking a pinch of snuff. The hall today is the site of the Carl and Carolyn Renfro Gallery that feature replicas of the twelve statues entered in a competition to depict the Pioneer Woman.</p><br>
<p>To the left of the hall is the service area of the house including the main kitchen where a majority of the cooking was done, the staff dining room and pantry. On the right was originally a handball court for the amusement of family and friends, but has been re-purposed as the administrative offices for the Estate and the National Petroleum Hall of Fame. At the far eastern side of the house are two lounges, the inner lounge known as the Winter Room, and the outer lounge known as the Summer Room. The Winter Room has a large fireplace with a hearth that hides a small entry to a panic room that could have been used by the family during any dangerous situations. Above the concrete beams of the ceiling are decorated with artwork tracing the history of Oklahoma from the days of the pre-Columbian Native Americans through the discovery of oil by Marland Oil Company. The third kitchen is also located in this room and is known as the Hunt Kitchen as this is where guest assembled for breakfast before the fox hunts. Adjacent to the Hunt Kitchen is the secret Poker Room that concealed a hidden Whiskey Room and door to the 550 foot tunnel leading to the Boat House and Artist Studio. The ceilings in the Summer Lounge were designed and painted by Vincent Maragliotti free of charge and pay homage to the spirit of the 1920s.</p><br>
<h3>Second floor</h3><br>
<p>The principal rooms of the house are located on the second floor. To the left of the entrance hall is the Elizabethan formal dining room featuring wall panels of hand-cut pollard oak cut from an English royal forest, as well as a suspended cast plaster barrel ceiling that was molded at bench level, and then hoisted and wired into position to the structural beams. Adjacent to the dining room is a small octagonal-shaped breakfast room with plaster work representing the Tree of Life on the walls, and a service kitchen that featured once state-of-the-art appliances and counters made of Monel.</p><br>
<p>Accessed by a curved double staircase in the entrance hall, a multiple arched loggia with vaulted ceilings, featuring hand painted chinoiserie canvases, and a terrazzo floor with each tile individually poured between brass dividers, runs through the center of the house to the ballroom. Flanking the loggia are the sun room and living room where Marland displayed his collection of tapestries, paintings and works of art. The spacious ballroom features an ornate coffered ceiling that was gilded in $80,000 of gold leaf, and lit from imported Waterford crystal chandeliers with wrought iron bases that originally cost $15,000 each. To replace the ceiling and chandeliers today would cost an estimated $2 million. On the north wall are family portraits surrounding a large fireplace.</p><br>
<h3>Third floor</h3><br>
<p>The third floor, where the familys private quarters are found, is accessed by a spacious stone staircase with wrought iron railings, or by the original Otis elevator lined with buffalo leather; one of the first to be installed in the state of Oklahoma. E.W. Marlands wood paneled bedroom was done in the English Tudor-style, and features a carved wood mantel with two of Marlands favorite polo mounts. The room is filled with many original pieces of furniture that have been returned to the house over the years. The connecting bathroom includes an electric sauna, believed to be one of the first in the United States. The library was Marlands private study and was the headquarters for his campaign when running for the office of Governor of Oklahoma. Noteworthy in this room are the bookshelves that are topped with giant seashell designs, replicas of those found in the Oval Office of the White House. The Louis XV-style bedroom of his wife, Lydie Marland, is lined with imported lime-wood hand-carved panels with rounded corners, and a fireplace carved from Italian pink marble. There are a number of guest suites and bedrooms on this floor as well, including one named after Will Rogers where it is believed he stayed during his visits to the mansion.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of the Marland Mansion are currently composed of 30 acre of gardens, lakes and ancillary buildings spread throughout the estate. The original buildings were designed to complement the main house with rough-hewn stone facades and red clay tile roofs. Lydies Cottage was originally the chauffeurs quarters with garage space attached for the Marlands carriages and cars. Several architectural elements used in the mansion can be found in the cottage including a wood beam ceiling and a fish-scale stone floor in the entry. The house was remodeled by Forsyth with the addition of a bedroom and bathroom in the former carriage area, and the Marlands moved-in upon the sale of the mansion in 1941. E.W. Marland died here six months later of a heart condition, while Lydie Marland continued to live in the house, off and on, until her death in 1987. The cottage today contains the Marland Family Exhibit, that includes photos and artifacts from the familys presence in Pennsylvania and Oklahoma.</p><br>
<p>South of the cottage, is the Artist Studio featuring a two-story peaked roof structure on the south and north, with two one-story galleries and an arched walkway in between. Built for Jo Davidson, sculptor of the Marland family statues, the beams of the studio were recycled from one of Marlands first oil derricks. The south wing houses the Bryant Baker Gallery featuring 44 bronze and plaster maquettes and busts of Bryant Bakers work. Bryant Baker was the sculptor of the Pioneer Woman Statue, which was commissioned by Marland and is located in Ponca City. Also, a room in the gallery displays information and drawings of the architect, John Duncan Forsyth, who designed the estate, as well as many other homes in Ponca City and Tulsa. The Oil Museum is located in the north wing of the Artist Studio and showcases the history of the Marland Oil Company in the early 20th-century. The studio is connected to the mansion by a tunnel via the Boat House.</p><br>
<p>The Boat House is the location of a large underground wine cellar that is accessed by a safe door. It also functioned as a storage area for the boats that were used for the enjoyment of guest and family. Once on the edge of one of five lakes on the estate, this body of water along with three other lakes, and the T-shaped Olympic-sized pool, were filled in by a successive owner. Lake Whitemarsh is the only remaining lake, and named after Marlands yacht, which in turn was named for a lake in Marlands hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At the height of the 1920s oil boom, E.W. Marland who controlled one tenth of the world&#39;s oil, set about building a home that was befitting of his new station in life. The mansion was built on a 2,500 acre estate on the edge of town, and named The Refuge by Marland. Construction of the house began in 1925, employing dozens of European craftsmen, and was completed in 1928 at a cost of $5.5 million. Artwork and antique furnishings were purchased from around the world to fill the large mansion and gardens including French limestone sculptures of the family.</p><br>
<p>E.W. Marland opened his estate on June 2, 1928, to invited friends and family, who enjoyed a luncheon and an afternoon of equestrian events such as polo and fox hunting which he had introduced to Oklahoma. Due to a hostile takeover of his company in 1928 by J. P. Morgan Jr., the Marlands only enjoyed living in the mansion until 1931, as the operation of the large dwelling depleted their much reduced finances. Moving into the Artist Studio on the estate, the mansion was only opened for special occasions, such as the Inaugural Ball to celebrate Marland becoming Oklahoma&#39;s 10th governor in 1935. Just six months prior to his death, Marland sold the estate to the Discalced Carmelite Fathers in 1941 for just $66,000. Marland kept the former chauffeur cottage and surrounding land, leaving them to Lydie in his will.</p><br>
<p>In 1948, the Fathers sold the estate to the Sisters of St. Felix who operated a private high school on the grounds. During their tenure, they built a number of structures on the grounds, though all have been removed except for Angela Hall, built in 1958, and still operating as a school. The Felician Sisters moved to New Mexico in 1975, and sold the estate to the City of Ponca City and Continental Oil Company, which transferred their partial ownership to the city, for $1.5 million. The mansion was opened to the public the following year, and since then has undergone continued renovation to restore the estate to its former grandeur.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977.</p><br>
<p>The Patrick Piggot House, also known as Angola Lodge, is located on Angola Road just east of US 9W in Cornwall, New York, United States. It has gone from being a farmhouse to a summer boardinghouse back to a private dwelling once again.</p><br>
<p>Piggot and his wife Ellen bought the property from local landowner Henry Chedeayne in 1869. That summer they contracted with Mead and Taft to build a farmhouse. They designed a simple Queen Anne home, less ornate than the Cornwall house that later became popular novelist Amelia Barr&#39;s Cherry Croft summer home. It had two storeys and a cross-gabled roof.</p><br>
<p>They and their seven children worked on the family farm until 1910, when the Chedeayne estate foreclosed on them after they failed to pay their mortgage. In 1916 it was sold to a Miriam Williams, who renovated and modified it slightly and then in turn sold it to Max Meyers. He found the house perfect for adaptation into a summer boardinghouse. The wide floors offered enough space for guest rooms and their symmetrical windows encouraged light breezes through the house. Downtown Cornwall and the Hudson Highlands were located short walks away.</p><br>
<p>Angola Lodge peaked in the 1930s and &#39;40s, after which vacationers began preferring shorter vacations located further away. Eventually it was sold and restored to its original use. The original windows and many of the original interior remains. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Guardian Bank Building  is a highrise building on Euclid Avenue in downtown Cleveland, Ohio.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>It was built in 1896 and stands adjacent to National City Center (now PNC Center). At 221 ft tall, it was once one of the tallest buildings in America and tallest in Cleveland until 1922 when it was surpassed by the Keith Building. The building was designed by the firm of Shepley, Rutan, and Coolidge and remodeled by Walker and Weeks in 1915. It was converted to a Holiday Inn Express in 1999, and added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 8, 2000.</p><br>
<p>In January 2010, Rosetta, the largest independent interactive agency in America, announced plans to move into the Guardian Bank Building. The plans, announced in conjunction with the signing of a 10year lease, include stripping and remodeling the top five floors, building a new penthouse suite on the roof, and renaming the building. In March 2012, developers announced plans to convert five stories into 85 apartments.</p><br>
<p>Sequoyah&#39;s Cabin is a log cabin and historic site off Oklahoma State Highway 101 near Akins, Oklahoma. It was the home between 1829 and 1844 of the Cherokee Indian Sequoyah , who in 1821 created a written language for the Cherokee Nation. The cabin and surrounding park was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 and is now owned by the Cherokee Nation.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Sequoyah&#39;s Cabin is located east of Akins on the east side of State Highway 101 at a point where it makes a northward jog. The cabin itself is a single-story log structure with a gabled roof, on 10 acre of land that has a park-like setting. The cabin is now sheltered from the elements by a brick structure built in the 1930s. There is a bronze statue of Sequoyah outside. The house is maintained as a historic house museum and is furnished to appear as it might have when Sequoyah lived there. There are relics and documents associated with his life.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Sequoyah was born about 1770 to a Cherokee mother and a white or half-white father, on the ancestral lands of the Cherokee in the southeastern United States. Unschooled except in tribal ways and customs, he came to understand the value of writing, especially in dealing with adjacent British settlers. In 1809 he began to work on a writing system for the Cherokee language. The result of his work, the Cherokee syllabary, continues to be used today. In the 1820s he moved west, to instruct western Cherokees in the writing system. It is during this period that this cabin was built, in 1829.</p><br>
<p>The cabin was acquired by the Oklahoma Historical Society in 1936. The shelter over the building was built by the Works Progress Administration in 1936, and is surrounded by a 10 acre park.</p><br>
<p>The cabin and surrounding park, now owned by the Cherokee Nation, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. And, as for all other already-designated National Historic Landmarks, it was automatically listed on the new National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the Cherokee Nation purchased the cabin and its property for $100,000.</p><br>
<p>Wheelock Academy was the model academy for the Five Civilized Tribes&#39; academies. It was started as a missionary school for Choctaw girls, and is still owned by the Choctaw nation. The school closed in 1955 and the only remaining Choctaw school, Jones Academy, became coeducational. The site is located 3 miles east of Millerton in McCurtain County, Oklahoma. It is administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1832 the Academy was initiated by Alfred Wright, a physician and Presbyterian missionary who co-founded the nearby Wheelock Church. He and his wife, Harriet Wright, had travelled with the Choctaw tribe when they were expelled from their previous homeland in the southeastern United States and forced to emigrate to Indian Territory. He named the school after Eleazar Wheelock, founder of Moor&#39;s Indian School, later known as Dartmouth College. Within a year, the Superintendent of the Choctaw Agency reported that Wheelock Academy had become a model for Indian education. In 1839, Wright expanded the school by building a large dormitory to accommodate boarding students. The institution he founded became the first Choctaw national academy in 1842.</p><br>
<h2>Impact of the Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Wheelock Academy was closed during the Civil War (1861 - 1865). The American Board of Missions had ordered Rev. Edwards to close the school and the church and return to the North.</p><br>
<h2>Rebuilding</h2><br>
<p>Libby&#39;s wife had been a student at Wheelock before the war. The couple maintained the buildings and continued to operate the facility as a day school, until a fire in 1869 destroyed many of the buildings. Classes resumed in some of the less damaged buildings. The Choctaw Nation rebuilt the facility in 1880 - 1884, with assistance from the Southern Presbyterian Church. Although the Presbyterian Home Missions Board and the Federal Government became involved in administering the school, it remained owned and financially supported by the Choctaw Nation.</p><br>
<p>The Choctaw Council created a National School Board in 1882. The board decided to rebuild the damaged and destroyed buildings and operate Wheelock as a boarding school for girls. John Edwards returned to teach at an academy near Boggy Depot, since his wife had died in 1881 in California. Edwards married a Wheelock teacher, Constance Hunter. The National School Board asked him to return to Wheelock as superintendent in 1884. Instead, he asked them to find another superintendent because he was in poor health. He remained as a mentor until the end of the 1886-87 school year.</p><br>
<p>Rev. William C. Robe was selected as the next superintendent. He elected to retire in 1890, and was succeeded by his son, J. C. Robe. Beginning in 1890, Wheelock Seminary operated as a "contract school", meaning that the school operated using tribal funds, but staff and superintendents were provided by the American Board of Missionaries.</p><br>
<h2>Curriculum</h2><br>
<p>Children attending the Choctaw academies were ten to sixteen years old. When the boarding schools for females first opened, the girls were taught given English names and told that all instruction would be in English. They were forbidden to use their native language while they were at the school. The curriculum included sewing, making clothing and doing household chores. They also learned business skills, reading, writing and spelling in the English language. Additional courses included Arithmetic, music, and geography were also taught, and in some schools pupils learned algebra, geometry, USA history, chemistry, philosophy, botany, astronomy, painting, drawing, and Latin grammar.</p><br>
<h2>Closure of tribal schools</h2><br>
<p>The 1898 Curtis Act had required the gradual closure of all tribal schools, as well as the disestablishments of tribal governments before statehood would be granted. By 1930, Wheelock and the Jones Academy in Hartshorne, Oklahoma were the only remaining Choctaw schools. In 1932, Wheelock became a United States Indian School. In 1955, its functions were merged with Jones Academy, and the Wheelock site was closed permanently.</p><br>
<h2>NRHP listing</h2><br>
<p>The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Present condition</h2><br>
<p>Only seven buildings remain standing, most in deteriorated condition. Although the local people maintain the grounds, and one building, the former LeFlore Hall, has been turned into a museum.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, a news program noted that Delton Cox, treasurer of the Choctaw Nation was leading a project to restore the old academy. By then, all of the remaining buildings had been painted and reroofed, at a cost of $70,000. Complete restoration has been estimated to cost $3 million. Cox said that the Choctaw Nation would like to turn the restored facility into a college (which would be the first tribal-owned college in Oklahoma).</p><br>
<p>A 2001 report to Congress, National Historic Landmarks at the Millennium, listed Wheelock Academy as one of the "Threatened Landmarks in America". The report specifically cited deterioration, looting and vandalism as specific threats.</p><br>
<p>The Saint Joseph Parish Complex is located at 1730 South 16th Street in South Omaha, Nebraska within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Omaha.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Established in 1886, the congregation was founded "to serve Omahas German-speaking Catholics." St. Josephs continues with parishioners of German heritage comprising a large percentage of the church&#39;s membership.</p><br>
<p>The church was located in an area of German Catholics that was centered on South 16th Street and Center Street, and which was exclusive of Protestant Germans, who generally settled in a concentration centered on South 11th Street and Center Street where they built a German Methodist Episcopal Church in 1886.</p><br>
<p>The complex includes a church, a friary, a convent, and two school buildings. The friary, built in 1886, was planned by the same Brother who designed the convent and school in 1901. In 1928 a second school building was designed by Omaha architect Jacob Nachtigall.</p><br>
<p>The Nationality Rooms are a group of 31 classrooms in the University of Pittsburghs Cathedral of Learning depicting and donated by the national and ethnic groups that helped build the city of Pittsburgh. The rooms are designated as a Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation historical landmark and are located on the 1st and 3rd floors of the Cathedral of Learning, itself a national historic landmark, on the University of Pittsburghs main campus in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Although of museum caliber, 29 of the 31 rooms are used as daily classrooms by University of Pittsburgh faculty and students, while the other two  are display rooms viewed through glass doors, utilized primarily for special events, and can only be explored via special guided tour. The Nationality Rooms also serve in a vigorous program of intercultural involvement and exchange in which the original organizing committees for the rooms remain as participants and which includes a program of annual student scholarship to facilitate study abroad. In addition, the Nationality Rooms inspire lectures, seminars, concerts exhibitions, and social events which focus on the various heritages and traditions of the nations represented. The national, traditional, and religious holidays of the nations represented are celebrated on campus and the rooms are appropriately decorated to reflect these occasions. The Nationality Rooms are available daily for public tours as long as the particular room is not being used for a class or other university function.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Nationality Room Program was founded by Ruth Crawford Mitchell at the request of Pitt Chancellor John Bowman in 1926, in order to involve the community in constructing the Cathedral of Learning and to provide the spiritual and symbolic foundation of the Cathedral that would make the inside of the building as inspiring and impressive as the outside. Under Mitchells direction, invitations were extended to national communities in the Pittsburgh area to sponsor a room that was representative of their heritage. Each group formed a Room Committee responsible for fundraising, designing, and acquisition. The university provided the room and upkeep in perpetuity once completed, while all other materials, labor, and design were provided by the individual committees. These were sometimes partly provided for by foreign governments which, "...responded with generous support, often providing architects, artists, materials, and monetary gifts to assure authenticity and superb quality in their classrooms." Each room is carefully designed and executed down to the switch plates, door handles, hinges, and wastebaskets. The work is often performed and designed by native artists and craftsmen and involves imported artifacts and materials. Mitchell remained Director of the Nationality Rooms program until 1956, having overseen the creation of the first 19 rooms on the first floor of the cathedral. A successor to Mitchell wasnt named until 1965 when E. Maxine Bruhns took over the program, overseeing the completion of twelve additional rooms on the third floor. Bruhns retired on Jan. 1, 2020, after 54 years in the position, and died in July 2020.</p><br>
<p>A typical room on the 1st floor built between 1938 and 1957 took between three and ten years to complete, and would have cost the equivalent of $ today, which was no small undertaking, especially considering that the fundraising and construction of the initial rooms took place during the Great Depression and World War II. More recent rooms have cost in the range of US$750,000 and up, and took up to ten years to complete. Upon completion of their rooms, the committees turn to a program of intercultural exchange and fundraising for nationality rooms scholarships which enable University of Pittsburgh students and faculty to study abroad. The room committees also sponsor cultural and fundraising events, lectures, concerts, exhibits, social events, and workshops on ethnic studies that may utilize the rooms. The committee may use its room for non-political meetings, lectures, or other functions if no classes are scheduled. Distinguished international visitors are received by the committees, and special projects are undertaken including the purchase of books for the University libraries, publication of volumes on topics from comparative literature to ethnic recipes, and the fostering of courses in the mother languages. National, traditional, and religious holidays are celebrated on campus, and committees decorate their rooms or mount displays to commemorate special occasions.</p><br>
<p>The first four rooms to be dedicated were the Scottish, Russian, German, and Swedish Rooms in 1938." The newest rooms are the Turkish and Swiss rooms, both dedicated in 2012, the Korean room dedicated in 2015, and the Philippine Room dedicated in 2019.</p><br>
<p>Original plans also proposed, in addition to the Nationality Rooms on the first floor, the creation of "Pennsylvania" classrooms on the second floor to be dedicated to the pioneering groups within the state along with third floor "Pittsburgh" classrooms dedicated to showcasing the history of the Western Pennsylvania or different eras of American history. Although the plans for the series of rooms were drawn up, only one room was installed, the Early American Classroom, which is now counted among the other Nationality Rooms. The plans for the other Pittsburgh and Pennsylvania rooms were never executed, and the Nationality Room program grew to occupy all of the first and much of the third floor.</p><br>
<p>Upon completion of a room, a dedication ceremony is held with a formal presentation of a ceremonial key to the universitys Chancellor to symbolize the bestowal and acceptance of the gift, and a commitment by the university to maintain the room in perpetuity. The nationality room committee officers then become members of the Nationality Council which provides scholarships for summer study abroad for Pitt students, along with other non-political cultural or educational events within the Nationality Programs scope. Today, the cathedral is home to 31 Nationality Rooms (29 working classrooms and two display rooms: the Early American Room and the Syrian-Lebanon Room), on the first and third floors. Each nationality room celebrates a different culture that influenced Pittsburghs growth, depicting an era prior to 1787, the universitys founding and the signing of the United States Constitution. Only one room does not follow this convention, with the French Classroom depicting the First French Empire of the early 19th century. There are two additional rooms in the process of being approved and funded.</p><br>
<p>Set in the Cathedral of Learning&#39;s cornerstone in 1937 is a gift from the Nationality Room Committee chairpersons to the university: a copper plate engraved with these thoughts:</p><br>
<p>Since 1944, tours of the nationality rooms have been given to visitors by a Pitt student organization, Quo Vadis (Latin: Where do you go?), that guides over 40,000 tourists a year. With reservations, specially themed tours based on creature symbolism, images of royalty, and folktales are also given. An estimated 100,000 visitors, including self-guided and walk-in tourists, visit the Nationality Rooms each year.</p><br>
<h2>Principles</h2><br>
<p>The following principles, in order to assure commonality of purpose, authenticity, and non-political cultural emphasis, governed the creation of nationality rooms from the programs inception in 1926 until the completion of the Irish Classroom in 1957.</p><br>
<p>A Nationality Room must illustrate one of the outstanding architectural or design traditions of a nation that is recognized as such by the United States Department of State.</p><br>
<p>The design of a given historical period must be cultural and aesthetic, not political. The period depicted should be prior to 1787, the year the university was founded.</p><br>
<p>To avoid political implications in the room, no political symbol is permitted in the decorations, nor a portrait or likeness of any living person.</p><br>
<p>The only place a political symbol may be used is in the corridor stone above the room&#39;s entrance.</p><br>
<p>No donor recognition may appear in the rooms. Donor recognition to the rooms is recorded in a Donor Book.</p><br>
<p>Most architects and designers of the rooms have been born and educated abroad. This has been instrumental in ensuring authenticity of design.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s, policy revisions were implemented which retaining most of the earlier principles, utilized a broader definition of nation to include a body of people associated with a particular territory and possessing a distinctive cultural and social way of life. This allowed the creation of the Armenian and Ukrainian rooms prior to their establishment as independent nations following the collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as allowing for the installation of the African Heritage Room.</p><br>
<p>The room must also be a functional teaching classroom with enough student tablet-armed seats, professor&#39;s lectern or table, adequate sight lines and lighting, modern audiovisual technology, and other necessities of a classroom. New rooms also have narrated tour equipment. Materials are to remain authentic and durable that are executed through architectural form and not mere surface embellishment and are to provide eternal qualities that have the potential to "teach" about the cultures with appropriate non-political symbols and artifacts.</p><br>
<h2>Classrooms</h2><br>
<h3>African Heritage</h3><br>
<p>The African Heritage Classroom was designed to reflect an 18th-century Asante temple courtyard in Ghana which would provide the setting for ceremonial events, learning, and worship. The classroom represents the entire continent of Africa with Yoruba-style door carvings by Nigerian sculptor Lamidi O. Fakeye depicting ancient kingdoms of Africa including Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Benin, Kongo/Angola, Kuba, Mali, and Zimbabwe. Plaster forms in the frieze represent the arts, music, science, languages, and literature of Africa. A display case housing artifacts from various African nations and the chalkboard area reflect patos around the courtyard. Below the chalkboard doors depicting the Igbo lozenge and star motif are Sankofa birds which symbolize the need to learn from the past in order to prepare for the future. The oxblood steps, two levels of student benches, and wainscot with relief decorations suggest the polished clay of an Asante temple. Openwork screens are present on the windows as they are used in Asante structures to filter the suns rays while allowing air flow. Six chieftain stools provide informal seating near a hand-carved professors lectern.</p><br>
<h3>Armenian</h3><br>
<p>The Armenian Classroom was inspired by the 10th- to 12th-century Sanahin Monastery. The design consists of intersecting arches and a domed ceiling built to lessen damage from frequent earthquakes in that country. The room&#39;s arches, built of Indiana limestone, make this the heaviest of the Nationality Rooms, weighing 22 tons, and required the second floor beneath the room to be reinforced in order to support its weight. The cornerstone is a basalt stone from the grounds of Sanahin. In the mortar behind it are the thumbprints of five of the oldest Armenian diaspora living in the Pittsburgh area, as well as the handprint of an infant of Armenian descent, symbolizing the continuity of the Armenian presence in western Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<h3>Austrian</h3><br>
<p>The Austrian Nationality Room represents the 18th-century era of the Austrian Empire during its age of enlightenment under Empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II and incorporates Baroque elements of the Haydnsaal in Schloss Esterházy at Eisenstadt where Joseph Haydn served as Kapellmeister from 1766 to 1778. Ceiling paintings depict scenes from Roman mythology similar to those in the Haydnsaal. The room features Lobmeyer crystal chandeliers, gilded white lacquer seminar furniture patterned after that in the formal dining hall of Vienna&#39;s Hofburg, royal red-tapestried walls, gold-leafed pilasters, and a parquet floor inlaid in a starburst design. Exhibits in the display cases in the room trace the development of the multinational Austrian Empire and the birthplaces of representative Austrian composers born within its borders between the years 1000 and 1918.</p><br>
<h3>Chinese</h3><br>
<p>The Chinese Classroom is inspired by the design of a palace hall in Beijings Forbidden City and is dedicated to the memory of Confucius and his democratic ideal of classless education. The teacher and students sit at the same level around a moon-shaped teakwood table. The professors chair is carved with the admonition to "Teach by inspiring gradually and steadily". A slate portrait of Confucius is present that is patterned after one in the Confucian temple at his birthplace of Qufu in Shandong Province. Above the red lacquered door, Chinese characters are carved into the stone lintel that proclaim that "Humility of mind goes with loftiness of character." Stone lions flank the entrance before carvings of the plum blossom, the national flower of China. The ceiling contains a coiling golden five-clawed imperial dragon surrounded by clouds denoting nature&#39;s energy and freedom. Painted squares portray dragons guarding the pearl of wisdom and the phoenix with the motan flower, a symbol of cultural wealth. The opened blackboard doors reveal painted renditions of the babao, or Eight Treasures, popular in Chinese art. On the base below is a carved version of the Bagua which consists of eight trigrams surrounding the circular Yin and Yang. Windows consist of frosted glass with stylized cames.</p><br>
<h3>Czechoslovak</h3><br>
<p>The Czechoslovak Classroom combines elements of a Slovak farmhouse, country church, and the Charles University in Prague while detailing men who contributed to Czechoslovak culture. The motto of the classroom, and of the former Czechoslovak government in exile, is proclaimed by the inscription of "Pravda Vítězí" which translates to "Truth Will Prevail" and surrounds a bronze relief portrait of the first President and founder of Czechoslovakia Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. In a wrought-iron case near the window bay, a letter penned by the hand of Masaryk to students at the University of Pittsburgh recalls John Amos Comenius belief that "education is the workshop of humanity". All woodwork, except the furniture, is made of larch wood which grows to great heights in the Carpathian Mountains. The ceiling, with flat boards overlapping each other between heavy beams, is painted by Prague artists Karel Svolinský and Marie Svolinská and depicts botanically accurate flowers and plants of Czechoslovakia and reflects a typical Slovak farmers home and the style of country churches. A "tree of life" design on the rear wall surrounds the text of the proclamation by King of Bohemia and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles IV that marked the founding of the University of Prague in 1348. The plaster reveals of the bay window area is decorated by murals of miraculous trees bearing flowers and fruits and harboring animals, birds, and insects reflecting "peasant writings" and executed by the artists in freehand. Ceiling panels portray eight famous persons in Czech and Slovak history from the 9th through 19th centuries including Cyril and Methodius who created the Cyrillic script, Waclaw who was the "Good King Wenceslaus" of the Christmas Carol, Jan Hus who was a champion of Czech religious freedom, John Amos Comenius who is considered the father of modern education, Ján Kollár a Slovak poet who called for Slavic unity, Ľudovít Štúr who developed the Slovak literary language, and Bishop Stefan Moyzes who pioneered popular education in Slovakia. Intarsia done by V. Kopka of Moravia are found on the entrance door panels and the professor&#39;s desk and lectern which depicts university academic disciplines. Embroidery, lace, Bohemian crystal, and historical documents are displayed in the wall cabinet.</p><br>
<h3>Early American</h3><br>
<p>The Early American Room is one of two display rooms not used as a functional classroom, although it is opened for guided tours. The room was commissioned by longtime University Pittsburgh trustee George Hubbard Clapp, a descendant nine generations removed from Roger Clapp, an English captain who sailed into the New England port of Hull on May 30, 1630. The kitchen-living room of the early colonists was chosen to portray the sturdy simplicity of life in America during the 1650s. The room&#39;s focus is a nine-foot fireplace constructed from 200-year-old handmade bricks with "fixings" of a log hook, heavy iron kettles, a spider, gridiron, longhandled waffle iron, bread shovel, skewers, ladles, and forks. A small recess in the brick wall served to bake bread. A tapered pole swings out from the end of the fireplace to be used for drying laundry or to hang a quilt to keep the cold draft from those gathered near the fire. Massive hand-hewn pine beams used in the seven-foot-high ceiling and the fireplace were collected after a careful search in Massachusetts. White pine is used for the heavy seminar table, benches, and chairs. Wrought-iron candelabra are hinged with clasps to hold lighting tapers. Other light fixtures are of specially designed pierced tin. The colonial-style windows were designed by glass artist Charles Connick. Decorative items include a collection of 17th- and 18th-century American coins, a working spinning wheel, and a hand-stitched sampler. The small closet between the blackboard and fireplace contains a secret panel and once the concealed latch is discovered, its release causes the wall to swing open, revealing a hidden staircase to the upper loft, which has been furnished as a 19th-century bedroom. Included in the bedroom is a four-poster rope bed and small cradle, both of which belonged to pianist and composer Ethelbert Nevin. The bedroom also includes several personal items, including an 1878 wedding quilt, which belonged to Waitman Worthington McDaniel and his wife Martha Jane Poe, the grandmother of Nationality Director Maxine Bruhns. The room is associated with various stories of unexplained incidents that have resulted in claims that the room is haunted.</p><br>
<h3>English</h3><br>
<p>The English Classroom is designed in the Tudor-Gothic style after the House of Commons that was rebuilt by Sir Charles Barry following the fire of 1834. The English Classroom is the largest of the Nationality Rooms and incorporates several original items given as gifts from the British Government from the damaged House of Commons, whose Chamber was completely destroyed, following its bombing by the Luftwaffe in 1941, including the stone fireplace, hearth tiles, linenfold oak paneling, entrance doorframe, lintel, and corbels. The fireplace is from the Commons "Aye Lobby", so named because members walk through it to vote "yes" to a bill, and is marked with the initials V.R. for Victoria Regina. The cast-iron fireback and andirons commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 and an inscription above the fireplace is from Shakespeares King Richard II and uses lettering adapted from the letter tiles originally designed for medieval paving by the Monks of Chertsey Abbey in Surrey. The inscription reads: "Set in the silver sea.....this blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England." Above the doorway hangs a royal coat of arms made in 1688 during the reign of King James II. The linenfold paneling itself arrived at the university still having a blackened coat from the bombing. Under the ceiling trusses are four carved limestone corbels from the House of Commons that are carved with a Tudor rose. Two corbels remain uncarved to emphasize the original carved corbels. The window frames, set in limestone, are characteristic of the Tudor period, and contain old imported glass, seeded and tinted, and encased in small, diamond-shaped leaded frames. Stained-glass window medallions depict the coats of arms of English towns and cities, literary and political figures, scholars of the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, and the Houses of Lords and Commons. Portraits of University of Pittsburgh alumnus and former Ambassador to the Court of St. Jamess, Andrew Mellon, and the former Earl of Chatham, William Pitt, after whom the city was named, flank the stained glass windows in the rear bay. A brick from 10 Downing Street serves as the rooms cornerstone. The white oak floor is fitted together with wooden peg dowels. Tudor-Gothic oak benches resemble the old House of Commons benches and are similarly arranged. Two English oak tables with melon-shaped legs stand before the bay. Two House of Commons Library chairs upholstered in green leather and bearing the official gold crest featuring the portcullis and crown were a gift of Lord Alfred Bossom and were rebuilt using wood from actual chairs in the bombed House of Commons.</p><br>
<h3>French</h3><br>
<p>The French Classroom was designed by Jacques Carlu, Director of the School of Architecture in Fontainebleau, in the French Empire Period that reflects a French style inspired by the glories of the ancient and classical past that were rediscovered during the Napoleonic campaigns in Greece, Italy, and Egypt. This places the timeframe of inspiration for the classroom in the late 18th century and early 19th century, just after the founding of the University of Pittsburgh in 1787, therefore making it the only classroom which represents an era postdating the founding of the university, although many room elements are influenced by the Palace of Versailles which clearly predates it. The color scheme of the room is blue-gray, royal blue, and gold, which were suggested by French-American architect Paul Philippe Cret and are typical colors used at the height of the French Empire. The walls of the room are lined with wood paneling in classical proportions, and slender wall pilasters are capped with delicately carved ad gilded crowns. Carved ornaments of the Egyptian griffin and classical rosettes accentuate panel divisions. A wall cabinet containing art objects, books, and medallions balances the entrance door and maintains the rooms symmetry. Crystal and metal chandeliers, which are simplified versions of those found in Palace of Versailles Hall of Mirrors, hang from a grey plaster ceiling. A parquet floor pattern also reflects many rooms in the Palace of Versailles. A mahogany professors chair and table are of the Directoire period design include bronze ornaments imported from France that are replicas of originals of Empire furniture in the Louvre. The mahogany student tablet armchairs are upholstered in royal blue. On the rear wall, a 16th-century Choufleur tapestry depicts an allegorical woodland scene including, among other animals, a unicorn which often served as a central figure in tapestries and legends from the Middle Ages. Gold damask draperies with a wreath and lyre motif add to the sense of French opulence and frame the windows which look out on the universitys Heinz Memorial Chapel, itself an example of French Gothic architecture inspired by the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.</p><br>
<h3>German</h3><br>
<p>The German Classroom was designed by German-born architect Frank A. Linder to reflect the 16th century German Renaissance as exemplified in the Alte Aula (Great Hall) of the University of Heidelberg. The woodwork of the room was done by German-born Philadelphia decorator Gustav Ketterer and includes walnut paneling framing the blackboards, columns carved with arabesques flanking the two entrance doorways, and support broken-arch pediments surmounted by carved polychromed crests of the two oldest German universities: Heidelberg (1386) and Leipzig (1409). The doors are mounted with ornate wrought-iron hinges and locks, and their upper panels are decorated with intarsia depicting the central square of Nürnberg on the front door and the fountain of Rothenburg on the rear door. Carved in the architrave above the paneling are the names of famous philosophers, poets, musicians, artists, and scientists. The intarsia doors of the four corner cabinets feature tales from German folklore including Parsifal who searched for the Holy Grail, Siegfried who was the hero of the Nibelungenlied, the maiden wooed in Goethes poem Heidenröslein, and Lorelei who was the golden-haired Rhine maiden whose song lured sailors to destruction. Painted on the escutcheon above the front blackboard are words from Friedrich Schillers Das Ideal und das Leben, "Stern endeavor, which no arduous task can shake, to the hidden fount of true attains." The rear wall has a quotation from Johann Wolfgang von Goethes Was wir bringen which reads: "Great mastery results from wise restraint, and law alone points the way to liberty." Furniture includes the professors leather upholstered chair stands on a small platform behind a burled walnut table and student tablet armchairs are walnut with scroll backs. Wrought-iron chandeliers are the work of German craftsman. The display case contains gifts of artworks and books from Germanys Ministry of Education. The stained-glass windows were designed by master stained glass artist Charles Connick, however they were not completed until 1953 by Connick protege Frances Van Arsdale Skinner. The windows depict characters in the Grimm Brothers fairy tales such as Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Hansel and Gretel, and Cinderella.</p><br>
<h3>Greek</h3><br>
<p>The classical architecture of the Greek Classroom represents 5th-century BCE. Athens, the Golden Age of Pericles and includes marble columns and a coffered ceiling. Colored details from the Acropolis Propylaea and Erectheum appear on white marble. The floor is paved with rectangular slabs of Dionessos Pentelic marble with dark vein. Gray Kokinara marble is used for the dado. The rooms columns and pilasters, as well as the coffered ceiling, bear painted decorations identical to those used on ancient Greek structures. The artwork was done by Athenian artist Demetrios Kokotsis who used the traditional encaustic painting method, employing earth colors and beeswax applied freehand which was then overlaid with 24-carat gold leaf rubbed on by polishing bones which required two men more than seven months to complete. White oak furniture, patterned after designs on Greek vases, is decorated with gold-leaf carvings and sunburst inlays of ebony. Student chair backs carry the names of Greek islands and towns. The professors and guests chairs bear the names of Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates. A line from Homer&#39;s Iliad exhorts students to strive for nobility and excellence. The deep red wall color is repeated in the drapery valance with its Greek key design. Archives in the alcove cabinet record visits by the Queen of Greece, and by ecclesiastic and diplomatic officials. In 1940, one of two marble pilasters for the room that was being constructed in Greece from the Mt Pentele stone quarry used to build the Parthenon, cracked shortly before shipping to the United States. With an invading World War II army massing on its borders, the column could not be replaced. Greek architect John Travlos ordered a matching crack etched into the undamaged column in order to preserve the symmetry. The marble was transported on the last ship to sail to America prior to the invasion and occupation of Greece. In November 1941, Travlos crouched under a blanket in his apartment closet listening to banned BBC radio broadcasts. Suddenly, Greek ecclesiastical music spouted from the radio, and Travlos heard the people of Pittsburgh dedicate his memorial to Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Hungarian</h3><br>
<p>Dénes Györgyi, a professor at the Industrial Art School in Budapest, won the Hungarian Classroom design competition sponsored by Hungarys Ministry of Education in 1930 which features Magyar folk art combined with deep wood carvings and historic stained glass windows. The walls of the room are oak veneer stained a soft tobacco brown. The wood in the panels was carefully selected and matched, so that the natural grains form interesting decorative patterns. The ceiling is 70 wooden cazettas suspended in a wooden frame and has a predominant hue of "paprika red", a color inspired by the peppers which are hung to dry over white fences in Hungary. The cazettas are decorated with folk motifs (birds, hearts, and tulips) in turquoise, green, and white were painted by Antal Diossy in Budapest. Joining the ceiling and walls is an inscription frieze with the first two stanzas of Himnusz, the Hungarian National Anthem by Ferenc Kölcsey. Above the blackboard is the coat of arms of the University of Buda which was founded in 1388. At the top is the crown of St. Stephen, the patron saint of Hungary and its first Christian king. The student seats are made of oak and are unadorned except for stylized carved tulip ornaments on the back. A bench along the rear wall and guest chairs are upholstered in blue. Along the corridor wall, panels carved with floral, plant, and bird designs invoke a "tulip chest" which are the traditional hope chests of Hungarian village brides that are decorated with tulips. In the display case lined with soft blue velvet is an exhibit of Hungarian porcelain, lace, embroidery, and costumed dolls. Stained and painted glass windows depict the legend of Hungarys founding as well as important events in the nations history and culture. The rear window depicts King Nimrod and his sons, Hunor and Magor, who pursued a white stag from the east to the fertile Danube plain. Descendants of Hunor became the Huns and those of Magor became the Magyars. The bay windows commemorate historic figures and events of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and 17th and 19th centuries. The oak entrance doors bears deep carvings of tulips, pomegranate leaves, daisies, and wheat. The doors center panel states the date of the room&#39;s completion in 1938. The carvings were made by American wood carvers of Hungarian birth from plaster models that were made in Budapest to ensure Magyar authenticity.</p><br>
<h3>Indian</h3><br>
<p>The Indian Classroom is modeled on a typical 4th–9th century AD courtyard from Nalanda University, a Buddhist monastic university in Nalanda. At its peak, the universitys five temples and 11 monasteries covered 32 acre and attracted thousands of students from all over Asia. The room depicts a classroom courtyard at Nalanda. The pale rose bricks, specially fabricated to reflect the hue and texture of the original, form the walls, floor, pilasters, and niches. Six stone columns decorated with rosettes, swags, and fruit echo those found at Nalanda. The rear sculpture wall, a scaled down version of one at Nalandas Stupa #3, bears images of six Bodhisattvas. Flanking display cases hold replicas of ancient bronze sculptures found at the site. A watercolor triptych depicts male and female students at Nalanda as scholar-monk Silabhadra says farewell to 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang. Gurus taught classes in the courtyards, which were surrounded by residential cells. The cherry wood chalkboard doors and flanking cabinets bear carved seals of Nalanda University with recumbent deer above a Sanskrit inscription. Cast steel grilles in front of the windows, hand wrought into forms which reflect decorative elements of the columns, filter the light and soften the view of the 20th-century outside world. Renaissance 3 Architects received the Master Builders Association Craftsmanship Award for its construction.</p><br>
<h3>Irish</h3><br>
<p>The Irish Classroom is the smallest of the Nationality Rooms. The limestone room is designed in Irish Romanesque style, which flourished from the 6th to the 12th centuries and is similar in type, size, and materials to oratories first built on the west coast of Ireland. Adapted from Killeshin Chapel in County Carlow, the triangular doorway gable is carved with human and animal masks against a background of zig-zag and beaded designs. The blackboard frames pendental arches are carved with foliage, images of wolfhounds, and stylized cat masks. On the opposite wall a sculptured stone chest, under a monumental recessed arch, is patterned after a bishops tomb in Cormacs chapel. Its ornate sculpture depicts the "Great Beast", a greyhound-like animal wreathed in interlaced ornaments. On the chest rests a replica of the Gospels from the Book of Kells. The wrought-iron case bears bird and beast designs drawn from the Book of Kells. Stained-glass windows, created in 1956/7 by the Harry Clarke Studios in Dublin, portray famous teachers at three of Irelands oldest centers of learning; St. Finnian at Clonard, St. Columkille at Derry, and St. Carthach at Lismore. Illuminations in the Book of Kells inspired the chair design, except for the wolfhound heads. The oak-beamed ceiling is characteristic of Irish oratories. The cornerstone, from the Abbey of Clonmacnoise, is carved with the Gaelic motto, "For the Glory of God and the Honour of Ireland." The cornerstone conceals a container of earth from Northern Ireland (County Armagh) and the Republic of Ireland (County Meath). The room was designed by Harold G. Leask, the former Inspector of National Monuments with The Office of Public Works (The O.P.W.) in Ireland.</p><br>
<p>Gov. David L. Lawrence, Art Rooney Sr., founding owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers, and James W. Knox, a member of the Pittsburgh Irish community, were on the room&#39;s organizing committee. After the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy ordered a Marine guard to deliver the Oval Office Presidential and American flags to Evelyn Lincoln, private secretary to the president. In her will, Lincoln bequeathed the flags to the University of Pittsburgh for the Irish Room in honor of Knox. The John F. Kennedy scholarship for study in Ireland and a James W. Knox endowment for graduate study abroad were created from the proceeds generated from their auction.</p><br>
<h3>Israel Heritage</h3><br>
<p>The Israel Heritage Classroom reflects the simplicity of a 1st-century Galilean stone dwelling or house of assembly, this rooms benches are patterned after those in the 2nd–3rd-century synagogue of Capernaum. The Ten Commandments, carved in Hebrew, grace the oak entrance door. Grapes, pomegranates, and dates on the stone frieze, copied from Capernaum, represent crops grown in the Galilee. On the window wall, an inscription discovered in the 6th-century Rehob synagogue cites the Talmudic laws governing the growing of crops each seventh year. A scroll fragment in the rear case replicates the Dead Sea Isaiah Scroll segment which contains the prophecy "They shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks..." Ancient wine jars flank the scroll. The professors table, based on one found in Jerusalem&#39;s 1st-century burnt house, stands before a copy of the only existing stone Menorah which served as a functional candelabrum. The quotation on the chair reads: "I learned much from my teachers, more from my colleagues, and most of all from my pupils." Three segments from the 6th-century Dura Europos murals grace the chalkboard doors, Ezra the Scribe, reads the law; Moses brings forth water for the 12 tribes; and the sons of Aaron consecrate the Temple. Oak benches bear the names of the 12 tribes of Israel. The floor mosaic replicates one in the 6th century Galilean synagogue of Beth Alpha.</p><br>
<h3>Italian</h3><br>
<p>The Italian Classroom reflects the serenity of a 15th-century Tuscan monastery, with its traditional devotion to religion, art, music, and education. The rear choir stall bench and shuttered windows introduce the monastic theme. The blackboard doors recall an armadio, a cabinet behind an altar used to hold priestly vestments. The turquoise soffitto a cassettoni (coffered ceiling), embellished with carved, gold-leafed rosettes, was inspired by one originally in the San Domenico Convent at Pesaro. In the architrave, names of famous Italians are inlaid in olive wood. The lettering resembles that used in the inscription on the Arch of Titus in Rome. Bay benches are cushioned in red velvet. The red tile floor is set in a herring-bone pattern similar to that of Florences Palazzo Vecchio. An original Florentine fireplace, made of sandstone from the quarries of Fiesole, bears the carved Latin inscription, "O Lord, do not forsake me." On either side stand Savonarola chairs. Monastery bench designs, adapted for student use, are carved with names and founding dates of Italian universities. The oldest is the University of Bologna, established in 1088. From the front of the room, a bronze bust of Dante Alighieri faces Giovanni Romagnolis mural of Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia, the first woman in the world to achieve a university degree when she was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1678 by the University of Padua.</p><br>
<h3>Japanese</h3><br>
<p>The Japanese Nationality Room celebrates traditional Japanese carpentry and woodcraft, evoking the mid-18th century minka which were houses of the non-ruling classes of Japan. This room is representative of minka that might be the residence of an important village leader in a farm village on the outskirts of Kyoto and the design represents the core rooms of the house: a plank-floored ima or household sitting room and the adjacent doma, an area with a compacted earthen floor used as an entry-way, for cooking and as a work space. The doma was also a space for household life, where farm, business and craft activities could be carried out under a roof. In the past it also provided a place for drying grain during rainy weather. A central feature of the room is the massive, rough-hewn beam, the ushibari of Japanese pine, supported by posts at the boundary of the ima and doma elements of the room. The main beam in this room had been carefully preserved by the carpenters in Japan for many years until a project could be found to appropriately utilize its unique curvature. To accommodate the weight concentrated on the primary post, the daikokubashira, the layout of the room has been designed so that this main post sits directly above the buildings existing superstructure. The major posts are made of zelkova, (keyaki), a hardwood with a distinctive grain pattern. The other beams are made of American pine. The posts and beams are connected without nails, using traditional joinery techniques. The ceiling is of bamboo with joined beams which would have allowed for the circulation of warm air from fireplaces below. The walls mimics the typical mud plaster walls through the use of textured wallpaper and wooden wainscoting for greater durability. The bay window is a structure not in keeping with traditional Japanese design and has been masked with panels that suggest shôji, sliding doors of lattice frames, covered with translucent paper. The ima is suggested with a plank wood floor covering the largest portion of the room. The floor toward the front of the room is made of a simulated earthen material to represent a portion of the doma where it meets the imas wooden floor. Although the traditional design would call for the wooden floor to be much higher than the dirt floor, this feature has been eliminated in the classroom for practicality. Located on the rear wall, is the tokonoma, a raised alcove for the display of treasured objects, flower arrangements, and seasonal decorations. The tokonoma has been built in shoin-style, with shôji along its exterior side. The corner post, tokobashira, is made of ebony and the floor of the tokonoma is tatami. The display cases at the rear of the room and along the interior wall contain artifacts in keeping with the period and include a chagama and furo, an iron kettle with metal charcoal hearth/brazier combination, used in the "tea ceremony". While typical minka would have no chairs at all, in keeping with its function as a classroom, the classroom has wooden chairs designed and crafted specifically for students and are consistent in design with the rest of the room. Sliding wooden panels cover the blackboard at the front of the room. The interior surface of the entry door has been modified with a wooden treatment that suggests the sliding door that was the typical entrance to a house of this period.</p><br>
<h3>Korean</h3><br>
<p>The Korean Nationality Room is based on the 14th century Myeong-nyundang (Hall of Enlightenment), the main building at the Sungkyunkwan in Seoul which served as Korea&#39;s royal academy during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties from 918 to 1897. The room mimics the three connected rooms of the Myeong-nyundan with twin oak columns forming a symbolic boundary and a central room featuring a lofted ceiling that contains two hand-carved phoenixes facing a symbolic pearl of wisdom, a design inspired by the royal palace of the Joseon Dynasty.</p><br>
<p>The room was primarily built off-site in Korea, disassembled, and shipped to Pittsburgh, where it was reassembled in the Cathedral of Learning by Korean carpenters who kept with traditional Korean building practices of not using nails or screws in construction. Windows are covered with a specially produced paper product made of mulberry tree fiber. A display niche to the right of the classrooms blackboards contains a book illustrating Crown Prince Hyomyeong&#39;s matriculation to Sungkyunkwan in 1817, while another niche displays the Four Treasures of the Study: brush, ink, paper and ink-stone. Furnishings include freestanding, hard-oak desks by Korean designer Ji-hoon Ha that accommodate two to three students and are specifically designed for laptops. The room also contains an 85-inch, 3-D LED screen and central speaker system and is the first nationality room to be constructed with such technology.</p><br>
<h3>Lithuanian</h3><br>
<p>The Lithuanian Classroom is dominated by a fresco depicting Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis famous painting The Two Kings, which portrays the reverence Lithuanians have for their villages. This mural sets the tone for a room that pays tribute to the symbolism and love of nature and home reflected in Lithuanian folk art. The doors wooden planks are laid in a diamond pattern similar to those of many farm structures. At the center of the door is a carved rosette, symbol of fire. Above the entrance, a stylized sun between two horses heads represents light and sound believed to ward off evil spirits. The white oak molding of intersecting scallops resembles decorations found on farm granaries or kleitis. Names of famous Lithuanians are carved on the frieze above the blackboard. The wall fabric is linen woven in a design called "The Path of the Birds". Its frame is of white oak and rare bog oak that acquires its deep hue while submerged in a marshy bog for decades. Lithuanian farmers would thus preserve prime trees in order to make furniture pieces that were treasured as heirlooms. The professors desk is modeled after a household table and the lectern incorporates details of a spinning wheel spindle. Student chairs are carved with a design found on household utensils. The radiator enclosure is perforated with a design of wild rue leaves, a Lithuanian national emblem. Traditionally, a bride is crowned with a wreath of rue, symbol of chastity. Windows of handpressed glass bear leaded medallions in the form of sun ornaments often found on roadside shrines.</p><br>
<h3>Norwegian</h3><br>
<p>The Norwegian Classroom was designed in Oslo in an 18th-century peasant style using Norwegian building techniques, painted decoration, and craftsmanship by architect Georg Eliassen just prior to the outbreak of World War II. Plans for the room were sent on the last ship to leave Petsamo for the United States where they were completed by University Architect Albert A. Klimcheck. Walls of the main space are paneled with vertical overlapping spruce boards hand-rubbed with wax. The walls in the front of the room are painted a soft blue and decorated with floral designs reminiscent of the 18th century rosemaling technique.</p><br>
<p>Because living and bedrooms were often merged into one room during this era, two of the panels swing open as if they would reveal traditional built-in-beds, but instead conceal the blackboard. The room features high-sloped ceilings reflective of those in Nordic peasant homes that keep snow from accumulating during the severe winters. Spruce boards are laid in a herringbone pattern slanting upward to a plane of flat boards decorated by two hand-carved, painted rosettes with a symbol for the midnight sun. Wooden chandeliers bearing a painted design incorporating "1945", the year the room was opened, hang from the flat surfaces. The professor&#39;s section of the room has a low raftered ceiling.</p><br>
<p>The transition between the two parts of the room is indicated by a corner kleberstone fireplace in which birch logs were burned standing on end to assure that smoke would rise up the chimney. Windows are of handmade opalescent glass tinted pale yellow. Since a bay window is not a Scandinavian tradition, the area is plastered, paved with slate, and treated as a traditional alcove. The student tablet armchairs are low-backed and the professor&#39;s chair is of a typical Viking design with carved heads of beasts and an intertwining dragon motif that traditionally serves as a symbol that protects against evil.</p><br>
<p>The room features a century-old grandfather clock with an engraved dial and a case that is painted to match the wall decorations of the smaller room. Above the rear wall bench and flanked by corner display cabinets decorated with rosemaling, hangs a framed copy of a 1695 Norwegian woolen tapestry depicting the Biblical parable of the five wise and five foolish virgins</p><br>
<h3>Philippine</h3><br>
<p>The Philippine Nationality Room began construction on May 3, 2018, overcoming a prior hold on the project since 2011. The design of the Philippine room is based on a traditional bahay na bato. Meaning "house of stone", bahay na bato is a long-lasting type of home that became popular in the Philippines during the years of Spanish rule (mid-1500s to 1898). The room is particularly based on the interiors of the Quema House in the city of Vigan. The Philippine Nationality Room was designed by Pittsburgh architect Warren Bulseco and Philippine architect Melinda Minerva “Popi” Laudico. Professor Fernando Zialcita, a noted authority on Philippine ancestral houses from Ateneo de Manila University, served as adviser to the project. Filipino-American artist Eliseo Art Silva created paintings for the room.</p><br>
<p>The room features lattice-patterned windows using capiz shells, a popular alternative to glass in the Philippines. The chairs are backed with solihiya, rattan woven into a sunburst pattern. An etched silver Murano mirror from Europe and a bronze chandelier from the United States highlight the role of imported design in Filipino culture.</p><br>
<p>Other artifacts showcase pre-Colonial cultures. The Golden Tara is a Hindu sculpture viewed by the Manobo tribe as a protective nature spirit. The Manunggul Jar, excavated from a Neolithic burial site in Palawan, depicts human figures traveling in a boat to the afterlife. The room&#39;s ceremonial key, designed by Christopher Purpura, incorporates mythological figures from the Meranao people of Mindanao—the serpent Naga and the bird Sarimanok.</p><br>
<h3>Polish</h3><br>
<p>The Polish Classroom was inspired by rooms in Krakóws Wawel Castle, for centuries the residence of kings. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, and the science that his theories revolutionized, are also a major theme of the room. A replica of the famous Jan Matejko portrait of Copernicus shows him as a young man pursuing his study of the universe from a workshop on the roof of his uncles house in Allenstein (Olsztyn). In the bay stands an enlarged replica of the 16th-century Jagiellonian globe, one of the oldest existing globes to depict North America as a separate continent. The original globe was only eight inches high and was designed to operate as a clock and calendar. It took a metalsmith in Kraków five years to complete the large globe in this room.</p><br>
<p>Artists from Kraków also came to Pittsburgh to paint the ceiling of 18 ft beams with informal geometric Renaissance decorations. The room is illuminated by a bronze chandelier bearing a stylized Polish eagle. The walnut seminar table was copied from one in a state dining room at Wawel Castle. The windows combine hexagonal handmade roundels, similar to those in Wawel Castle, with stained-glass coats of arms representing Polish institutions of higher education. The cornerstone is a fragment of Gothic cornice preserved from the Collegium Maius (1369), the ancient Jagiellonian Library. Polands music is represented by the original manuscript of Ignace Paderewskis only opera, Manru, which is displayed in the archive cabinet.</p><br>
<h3>Romanian</h3><br>
<p>The Romanian Classroom was designed in Bucharest by Nicolae Ghica-Budeşti. The carved doorframe is characteristic of stone thresholds of Romanian monasteries and is made is of American limestone selected due to its similarity to Romanian limestone used in the royal palace at Bucharest. The entrance door of the Romanian Classroom is ornately carved oak reminiscent of Byzantine churches in Romania. The words of Vasile Alecsandri, one of the greatest Romanian poets of the 19th century, are carved overhead in the stone door frame from his Ode to the Year 1855: "The Romanian is like the mighty rock which amidst the waves of the stormy and majestic sea forever remains unmoved." The floor is laid in square blocks of pink marble imported from quarries at Ruşchiţa. The black boards are set in arched oak panels, carved in a manner of icon screens in Eastern Orthodox and Greek Catholic Romanian churches. These are separated by carved-twisted rope which suggests the Roman origin of many of Romania&#39;s artistic traditions. Ancient original icons from Romania depicting the Virgin and Child, Christ, the Dormition of the Virgin, and Saint Mark are embedded in the upper section of each panel.</p><br>
<p>White arca paint mixed with color gives the smooth plastered walls a bluish pink tint. A Byzantine-style mosaic embedded in the rear wall, a gift of the Romanian government, was executed by Bucharest ceramicist Nora Steriade in gold, turquoise, bronze, ruby red, and black pieces of glass, and was originally part of the Romanian Pavilion at the 1939 New York World&#39;s Fair. The lettering for the inscription and for the entrance text is the work of Alexander Seceni. The mosaic depicts Constantin Brâncoveanu, Prince of Wallachia, who refused to recant the Christian faith even at the cost of his own life and the lives of the male members of his family. The six windows have rounded Romanesque heads reflecting tradition brought from Rome when they conquered the original Dacian settlers in 106 AD.</p><br>
<p>Two small window casements are deeply recessed and have marble window ledges. The four large center windows, form an alcove shut off from the main part of the room by an iron grilled gates wrought in Romania and hung in an arch. These gates swing back in folded sections against the plastered wall. A slab of polished marble tops the wrought-iron radiator grille. Yellow silk draperies frame the windows and ancient icons befitting the season and holidays are exhibited in the alcove which is reminiscent of an icon shrine in an Orthodox Church. The student chairs are of dark oak hand-carved by Romanian peasant artisans using simple pocketknives and each splat bears a different design. The professor&#39;s reading desk was adapted from an Eastern Orthodox Church lectern.</p><br>
<h3>Russian</h3><br>
<p>The Russian Classroom contains folk ornamentation with traditional motifs from Byzantium, the spiritual center of Russia. The seminar table is made of oak slabs matched in contrasting grain and held together by ornamental keys. The cut-out apron is characteristic of massive tables in the Vologda district. The back of each students chair has a cruciform circle pattern surmounted by triangles carved with symbols of regional or stylistic significance including the reindeer which symbolizes the tundra and the sturgeon that represents the Volga River. The professors chair has a back of spirals surmounted by two peacocks worshipping the tree of life. The podium is ecclesiastic in character and suggests the analoi used in Orthodox churches to support heavy Bibles. The blackboard is patterned after a triptych, or three-leafed frame which holds icons.</p><br>
<p>The doors of the blackboard are a grille of wooden spirals backed by red velvet. Above them is a carved panel with Sirin and Alcanost, the twin birds of Russian folklore that depict joy and sorrow as indistinguishable. A dado or low wainscot of simple horizontal oaken boards surrounds the room and incorporates the blackboard, the corner cupboard, and kiot which is a Slavic term for a wall frame treated as a piece of furniture. Within the kiot hangs a vishivka (appliqué and embroidery) banner of Saint George, patron saint of Moscow since the 15th century. The banner was made with pieces of 16th and 17th century fabric from Venice and Paris and is an example of needlework once popular with the Russian aristocracy. The words "Valorous youth victorious over forces of evil and darkness" are carved in both Russian and English below the banner. A copy of the Avinoff family icon in the room depicts the miraculous saving of the city of Kitej from a Tartar invasion in the 14th century. The ceiling is cornered with designs resembling those used to form traditional Easter cakes and which symbolize the four seasons, with a bud for Spring, a sunflower for summer, grapes for Autumn, and a pine cone for Winter. A wrought iron chandelier was created by Russian-born Hyman Blum.</p><br>
<p>Following a visit from Dmitry Medvedev in 2009, a display cabinet with carved ornamentation matching the rooms original carvings was installed to house three gifts presented by the then Russian President.</p><br>
<h3>Scottish</h3><br>
<p>The Scottish Classroom was designed by Reginald Fairlie of Edinburgh in the period style of the early 17th century. The woodwork is carefully selected and treated English pollard oak. The names of distinguished Scots are carved in the ribbon bands of the panels and include David Livingstone who was an African missionary and explorer, Robert Louis Stevenson who authored Treasure Island, and Alexander Fleming who discovered penicillin. The inscriptions above the doors and the rear cabinet are from "The Brus" by the 14th-century Scottish poet John Barbour. The rooms oak doors were copied from the entrance of Rowallan Castle in Ayrshire. A 16th-century Scottish proverb above the blackboard was taken from the Cowgate in Edinburgh and is known as "the Scottish Golden Rule" which reads: "Gif Ye did as Ye sould Ye might haif as Ye would." The plaster frieze was adapted from the plaster frieze at Elcho Castle in Perthshire and incorporates symbols of 14 Scottish clans which had members on the room committee, such as the buckle of the Leslie Clan. The thistle, Scotlands national flower, is rendered on the cornerstone as a tree-of-life. The overmantel of the Scottish sandstone fireplace that is flanked by carved kists, or log storage chests, is dominated by a portrait of poet Robert Burns that is copied from an original by Alexander Nasmyth which hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of Scotland. Above the portrait is the cross of St. Andrew, Scotland&#39;s patron saint. The bronze statuettes on the mantel near an arrangement of dried heather are miniature replicas of heroic statues at the gateway to Edinburgh Castle and represent the 13th-century patriot Sir William Wallace and the 14th century freedom fighter, Robert the Bruce, both of whom were popularized in the movie Braveheart.</p><br>
<p>Medallions in the bay windows represent the coats of arms of the four ancient Scottish universities: Glasgow, St. Andrews, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. The medallions in the front and rear windows are of Elgin and Melrose Abbeys which were 13th and 16th century seats of learning. The draperies are of crewel-embroidered linen. The rooms lighting fixtures were inspired by an iron coronet in Edinburghs John Knox Museum that was retrieved from the battlefield of Bannockburn at which Scotland won its independence from England in 1314. Students seats resemble a chair that belonged to John Knox. An old Scottish church furnished the pattern for the reading stand. The rear cabinet, based on an aumbry or weapon closet, contain artifacts such as pewter and china used at Soutars Inn in Ayrshire that was frequented by Robert Burns. The panels in the doors, mantel, and in-the-wall cabinets were carved in Edinburgh by Thomas Good and then shipped to Pittsburgh. The cabinetwork was done in the shops of Gustav Ketterer of Philadelphia. Wrought ironwork was done by Samuel Yellin. Cut into stone above the doorways are the thistle and the Lion Rampant, the Scottish emblem incorporated into Britain&#39;s royal arms. The chairman of the original Scottish Classroom Committee was Jock Sutherland.</p><br>
<h3>Swedish</h3><br>
<p>The Swedish Classroom reflects a peasant cottage and contains murals painted by Olle Nordmark. The special glory of the room is the rear wall paintings. The inspiration for the four framed paintings came from painted panels done by the 18th-century painter from Hälsingland, Gustav Reuter. Linton Wilson found the panels at the Nordic Museum.</p><br>
<p>The hooded brick fireplace derives from an original in the Bollnäs Cottage in Skansen, the famous outdoor museum in Stockholm. The brilliant white walls and fireplace are constructed of 200-year-old handmade bricks. The fire tools were handwrought by Ola Nilsson, a Swedish blacksmith. He reconstructed tools used in his childhood home in Sweden.</p><br>
<p>A subtle sense of humor associated with the Swedish people is revealed in the rooms paintings. A wall fresco secco depicts the Three Wise Men dressed as cavaliers riding to Bethlehem, in two directions. In their midst is Swedens patron saint, St. Catherine. The sloped ceiling bears decorations in which the central figure is the Archangel Gabriel, seen as a droll trumpeter with two left feet. Nearby are renditions of Justice and Knowledge surrounded by groupings of flowers. Justice uses her blindfold to hold scales that appear balanced but have an off-center fulcrum. Knowledge seems puzzled as she contemplates writing on her slate with a quill pen.</p><br>
<p>Furniture and woodwork are the work of Erik Jansson of Philadelphia. The classroom&#39;s oak furniture is stained a muted gray-blue tone, similar to that found in old Swedish homes. Floral designs, in colors that complement the amber tone of fir wall benches, brighten the door and archive cabinet. The red brick floor is set in a herringbone pattern.</p><br>
<h3>Swiss</h3><br>
<p>The Swiss Classroom is modeled after a 15th-century room from Fraumunster Abbey displayed in the Swiss National Museum in Zurich, Switzerland. The room is paneled in pine wood and features four white oak trestle tables and four display cases that represent the four languages of Switzerland: French, German, Italian, and Romansch. 26 country-style chairs contain painted carvings of the symbols of Switzerland&#39;s cantons that form the Swiss Confederation which united in 1291. The furniture and woodwork were crafted by Richard Sink of French Creek, WV.</p><br>
<p>A centerpiece of the room is a reproduction of a cocklestove that is modeled on a H.H. Graaf family oven on display in Schloss Wülflingen Castle, Winterthur. The cocklestove&#39;s ornate tiles contain several painted Swiss motifs that including various animals, plants, edelweiss, the heraldic emblem of the Graaf family, and a depiction of the Swiss legend of William Tell. Windows are leaded and feature three stained-glass shields of the original Swiss cantons as well as the Swiss Cross.</p><br>
<p>The Swiss Cross is also displayed stone over the door, within the window of the door, and on the lectern which is modeled on a 17th-century schoolmaster&#39;s desk. A carved and painted frieze depicts Swiss flora and fauna and an antique map depicts Switzerland by its ancient Latin name of "Helvetia". Portraits on the back wall, done in the style of Hans Holbein the Younger, depict Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Wood beamed ceiling contains LED lights that are hidden behind rosettes.</p><br>
<h3>Syria-Lebanon</h3><br>
<p>Originally a library built in 1782 in a wealthy Damascan merchant&#39;s home, the Syria-Lebanon Room was moved intact to its location in the Cathedral of Learning following a six-year effort to fund and install the room by the Syrian and Lebanese communities in Pittsburgh. Because of the fragility and pricelessness of the furnishing, it has been closed for class use and is one of two display rooms. The linden-paneled walls and ceilings are decorated with "gesso painting," a mixture of chalk and glue applied by brush in intricate relief, then painted and overlaid with silver and gold leaf. The room features a (now improperly oriented) mihrab with a stalactite vault traditionally housing the Koran and prayer rug. Set in the walls are book cabinets and display shelves. The room is illuminated by an old mosque lamp of perforated copper with handblown glass wells that originally held oil, water, and wicks. The sofas, from the Arabic word "suffah", are covered in satin and rest on a dark red and white marble foundation. The marble floor slopes down at the entrance where visitors would remove their shoes before entering. In 1997, a glass-paneled French-style door to the room was added to allow the room to be visible from passers-by. The doors were patterned after a grille design found on the windows of the 18th century Ibn Room in the Islamic section of the Metropolitan Museum in New York City.</p><br>
<h3>Turkish</h3><br>
<p>The Turkish Nationality Room was based on a baş odası, or main room, of a typical Turkish house or hayat with an outer gallery and a side iwan. The iwan is intended to be used as an entrance area similar to the royal pavilion, annexed to the Yeni Mosque in the Eminönü district of Istanbul, which was built in 1663 for the use of Sultan Mehmet IV. In the iwan of the Turkish Nationality Room, four ceramic panels, painted on clay tiles in Ankara, represent various cultures and points in Turkish history. The largest ceramic is a portrait of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey, who is depicted instructing the nation on the Turkish alphabet adopted in 1928. Other panels depict Uighur princesses, who represent the importance of women in circa 9th-century Turkish culture, a reproduction of "Two merchants in conversation" by which signifies the appearance of realism in Turkish drawing around the 14th century; and a depiction of Suleiman the Magnificent at the circumcision ceremony of Şehzade Beyazıt and Şehzade Cihangir which represents the apex of Ottoman power and culture in the 16th century. The main room attempts to convey the theme of democracy with its seating distributed around the perimeter of the room which suggests that all occupants are equals. Hardwood seats mimic divan-style seating found in a typical baş odası with back panels that function as writing tablets which when retracted form a "parted curtain" motif, a common shape used for household wall niches. The room&#39;s ceiling, modeled after the Emirhocazade Ahmet Bey summer house in Safranbolu, is a combination of traditional çitakâri and kündekâri carpentry art that creates intricate geometric patterns using small pieces of wood attached without metal fasteners or glue. Clear glass windows along one wall frame a painted mural depicting a panoramic view of Istanbul which is feature similar to that seen in the mirrored room of the Topkapi Palace. The stained glass windows depict a tulip shape which served as a symbol of the Ottomans in the 18th century. Display cases contain historic examples of Turkish calligraphy, ceramics, jewelry, miniatures and textiles as well as an evil eye. The entrance symbol above the exterior door depicts the current flag of Turkey, adopted in 1936.</p><br>
<h3>Ukrainian</h3><br>
<p>The Ukrainian Classroom is designed in Baroque style with richly carved wood, colorful ceramics, and intricate metalwork in this adaptation of a noblemans reception room. The entrance has an archaic trapezoidal form with carved motifs of water (chevron), wheat, and sunflowers. The lintel inscription commemorates Ukraines millennium of Christianity (988–1988). The stove tiles depict festival practices and daily life. A pokutia, or place of honor, is defined by the benches and the traditional icons of St. Nicholas, the Mother of God, Christ the Teacher, and St. George.</p><br>
<p>The chalkboard doors bearing the Tree of Life are surmounted by three Cyrillic alphabets used in Ukraine in the 11th, 17th, and 19th centuries. On the right wall, a copper bas-relief depicts the development of Ukrainian culture over the millennia. It portrays cultural centers, historical figures, rituals, monuments, and the evolution of Ukrainian ornament. The massive crossbeams elaborate carvings include a protective solar symbol and a quotation from Ukraines bard Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): "Learn, my brothers! Think and read... Learn foreign thoughts, but do not shun your own country!" Beyond the wood posts, reminiscent of a gallery, the display case houses traditional Ukrainian art and crafts.</p><br>
<h3>Welsh</h3><br>
<p>The Welsh Classroom, was perhaps the longest in coming, as reservations for a Welsh room were originally requested in the 1930s. The existing room, installed on the third floor of the Cathedral of Learning, is patterned after the Pen-rhiw Chapel at St Fagans National History Museum near Cardiff and represents a traditional 18th-century Welsh chapel, which often became the center of village social life. By that time, the English ruled the country and imposed law requiring English as the official language of the courts and churches. In order to worship and hold church services in their native Welsh language, and spurred on by the non-conformist movement started by the Protestant Reformation, the Welsh people met in secret locations such as barns or homes, as suggested by the simple white walled chapel modeled in this Nationality Room. The minister would live at one end as depicted by the display case with dishes and pottery that would be found in a Welsh kitchen and the long oak case clock seated on a Welsh slate foundation opposite the main blue door. The clock, considered one of the most important furnishings in a Welsh home, has, instead of numbers, a painted square face that spells out "Richard Thomas" suggesting that he was both the maker and owner of the clock. The bay window serves as the focus of the Welsh chapel worship, including a blue raised pulpit with a view of the entire congregation and two Deacon&#39;s benches from which to monitor the actions of the minister and congregation.</p><br>
<p>At the other end of the room is a table bearing a lectern, as such worship places would often become a school room for both children and adults during week days. Above the chalk board is the Lord&#39;s Prayer, written in Welsh. Pew benches of pine face the lectern. Along the wall, larger and more comfortable blue-painted pew boxes with wooden floors, often also serving as barn cattle stalls, would have served wealthier families who would sometimes bring straw, blankets, hot bricks, or dogs to keep them warm. To reflect the simplicity of such meeting places, the ceiling beams are made of poplar and flooring suggests a typical chapel dirt floor. The carved stone dragon over the doorway, the long-time Welsh national symbol, represents the legendary victory of the Red Dragon over the White Dragon of numerous tales of medieval Welsh literature and represents the triumph of Good over Evil.</p><br>
<h3>Yugoslav</h3><br>
<p>The Yugoslav Classroom was designed by Professor, a sculptor and director of the Industrial Art School in Zagreb. The walls are paneled in Slavonian oak and hand-carved with geometric figures and the old Slavonic heart design which is combined with a running geometric border, a favorite with South Slavs. This type of work, known as "notch-carving", was traditionally done with a penknife as pastime of peasants. On the corridor wall is a specially designed coat of arms featuring a double-headed eagle symbolizing the religious influences of Eastern Empire of Byzantium and Western Empire of Rome along with the founding dates of the universities in Belgrade, Ljubljana, and Zagreb. The ceiling is carved with intricate Croatian, Slovenian, and Serbian folk motifs and the wooden chandeliers are similar to those in the White Palace in Belgrade. The professor&#39;s chair and guests chairs were carved by students at the International Art School in Zagreb, and each spindle of the chairs bears a different notched design. At the window, a bronze sculpture by Vojta Braniš, "Post-War Motherhood", depicts a barefoot mother nursing her child whom she has protected during the long months of war. In the display cabinet is a lace portrayal of the Madonna of Brežje by Slovenes Leopoldina Pelhan and her student Mila Božičkova which took six months to complete and was inspired by the story of a lace Madonna created by the villagers of Sveta Gora in order to replace a priceless painting during World War I. The ceiling squares contain one of the three alternating ceiling ornaments suggesting flowers, stars, the sun, and other radiating geometric patterns, which are organized into a matrix of 9 by 7 squares.</p><br>
<p>Above the paneled walls, six portraits depict prominent Yugoslavs. On the front wall are portraits of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787–1864) who compiled the Serbian dictionary and collected, edited, and published Serbian national ballads and folk songs; and Croatian statesman Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer (1815–1905) who was known for his efforts to achieve understanding between the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches, founder of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts (now the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts). On the corridor wall are likenesses of Baron George von Vega (1754–1802), a Slovenian officer in the Austrian army and mathematician recognized for various works including a book of logarithm tables; and Petar Petrović Njegoš (1813–1851), the last prince-bishop of Montenegro, who was celebrated for his poetry. Represented on the rear wall are Rugjer Bošković (1711–1787), a Croatian scientist distinguished for his achievements in the fields of mathematics, optics, and astronomy; and France Ksaver Prešeren (1800–1849) who is considered one of the greatest native-language Slovenian poets.</p><br>
<p>The Yugoslav Classroom&#39;s executive committee was first organized in 1926 under the chairmanship of Anton Gazdić, the president of the Croatian Fraternal Union. After his death in September 1933 the new chairman was Steve Babić, the previous vice-chairman, and the new vice-chairwoman became Catherine Rušković McAleer. Famous Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović was a great supporter of the Classroom and gave two of his works to the university, one a bust of Mihajlo Pupin and the other a self-portrait. The Classroom was designed to portray the culture and traditions of the Yugoslavs, who were considered as inhabitants of the various Yugoslavian regions: Croatians, Dalmatians, Slavonians, Slovenians, Serbians, Bosnians and Montenegrins.</p><br>
<h3>Proposed rooms</h3><br>
<p>The university has two additional Nationality Room Committees which are in various stages of fund raising and room design.</p><br>
<p>Proposed rooms include the following:</p><br>
<p>Finnish</p><br>
<p>Iranian</p><br>
<p>Thai</p><br>
<p>Prior projects for Danish, Latin American, Moroccan, and Caribbean rooms have been discontinued.</p><br>
<p>The Menoken Indian Village Site, also known as Menoken Site, Verendrye Site or Apple Creek Site is an archeological site near Bismarck, North Dakota. The site, that of a fortified village occupied c. 1300, is important in the region&#39;s prehistory, as it is one of the only sites that predates sites that are more clearly associated with the historic Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara cultures. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. It is located on 171st Street NE, north of Menoken, about 10 mi east of Bismarck. The site managed by the state as the Menoken Indian Village State Historic Site, and is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Also listed on the National Register, in 2010, is a set of Depression Era Work Relief Construction Features at Menoken State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Menoken Site occupies a terrace on the south side of Apple Creek, a tributary of the Missouri River, to which it flows near Bismarck. The site consists of a defensive earthworks, whose major component is a ditch about 245 m in length, with four bastion loops projecting outward at equally spaced intervals. The ditch is about 1.5 m deep, and varies in width from 6 to 7 m in width. The ditch forms a curve, covering about 100° of a circle, and protects an inner area of about 1.5 acre. Archaeological evidence indicates that there was originally a palisade just inside the ditch; only post holes of this structure survive. The inner area of the fortification, which has not been fully investigated, is estimated to have had between 11 and 13 semi-subterranean residential structures in it.</p><br>
<p>This site, first excavated in the 1930s, was thought for many years to be that of a Mandan village visited by the French explorer La Verendrye, but archaeological investigations in the 1990s and early 2000s have revealed evidence that the site is actually somewhat older, and that the site was probably occupied by ancestors of one of the region&#39;s major tribal groups, with an occupation period c. 1100-1300. It was probably used as a semi-permanent settlement, from which the occupants would hunt bison and other wildlife. Extensive finds exist here of stone tools, predominantly quarried in the Lynch Quarry vicinity to the west, as well as ceramic pottery fragments and bone tools.</p><br>
<p>The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, primarily on the basis of the belief (now known to be incorrect) that it was associated with La Verendrye, but it retains significance to its critical place in the regions prehistoric chronology, and its archaeological importance. Elements of the sites improvements, made during the Great Depression, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010. The site, acquired by the state in 1937, is open to the public, with a walking trail that has interpretive signage.</p><br>
<h2>Depression Era Work Relief Construction Features</h2><br>
<p>Depression Era Work Relief Construction Features at Menoken State Historic Site was listed on the National Register in 2010.</p><br>
<p>171st Street and 32nd Avenue NE; Bismarck vicinity 1.7 miles north of Menoken and 1 mile east from the I-94 exit at milepost 170</p><br>
<p>Late 19th & Early 20th Century Revivals / Late Gothic Revival / Picturesque. WPA Rustic</p><br>
<p>Work of the Works Progress Administration, with design directed by Russell Reid, Superintendent State Park Section. State Historical Society of North Dakota</p><br>
<p>historically Verendrye State Park</p><br>
<p>The Huff Archeological Site is a prehistoric Mandan village in North Dakota dated around 1450 AD. It was discovered in the early 1900s. The site has been designated a National Historic Landmark, and is one of the best preserved sites of the period.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The site is located near the town of Huff in Morton County, North Dakota on the bank of the Missouri River. In the 1960s, excavators enlisted the assistance of the US Army Corps of Engineers to stabilize the river bank and protect the site. Because of this, most of the site is undisturbed.</p><br>
<p>The rectangular layout of the village, which once included hundreds of lodges and outer fortifications, is easily seen on the surface at the site. The village spans 12 acres of land next to the river bank.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The village was occupied about 200 years before European influence. The people who lived here were agriculturalists and hunted bison. Conflict seemed to be an issue to these people, since the settlement was heavily fortified with ditches and bastions. The buildings inside the fortifications were all rectangular, except one, and dug into pits one or two feet deep. Their support posts were made of trees from the surrounding area. Entryways of all the buildings face southwest, away from the river. The one house that is different from the others is more square in shape with rounded corners. The village layout is similar to other Mandan villages in that it has a central plaza and a ceremonial structure that opens into the plaza.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Today, the site has a walking tour that includes informative signs and is protected by the State Historical Society of North Dakota as Huff Indian Village State Historic Site. This site is considered an important piece of North Dakota archaeology, and of Native American heritage.</p><br>
<p>The Frederick A. and Sophia Bagg Bonanza Farm, also known as Bagg Bonanza Farm or F. A. Bagg Farm, is a former bonanza farm in Richland County, North Dakota, United States. Operated between about 1915 and 1935, the farm of the Baggs encompasses as many as 7,000 acre, and was operated virtually like a factory according to modern business practices of the period. The surviving farm complex is now owned by a local non-profit organization and operates as a museum. It is one of the best-preserved examples of a bonanza farm complex in the nation, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Bagg Bonanza Farm is located on either side of 169th Avenue Southeast in rural Richland County, east and south of Mooreton. Still surrounded by agricultural fields that were once part of the farm, the main complex consists of a large number of residential buildings and farm-related outbuildings for housing farm animals, feed, and equipment for working the land. The buildings are laid out in a roughly rectilinear manner, with walls oriented north-south and east-west. Stylistically the buildings are vernacular, and lack significant ornamentation. The main house originally served as a bunkhouse at a nearby farm where the Baggs worked before establishing this one, and was adapted by them to house their family and a number of transient farm laborers.</p><br>
<p>Frederick and Sophia Bagg were foreman and cook respectively at the Downing Farm, and in the 1890s began acquiring land in this area for their own farm. In 1915 they started this farm, which was described by Bagg as essentially a factory operation, using labor division, management, and cost management techniques from industrial business, but applied to the practice of agriculture. The farm mainly produced wheat, corn, and clover, and fluctuated in size, with a maximum documented extent of about 7,000 acre. These types of large-scale operations were also made possible by the completion of railroads, which could bring their large harvests to market. The farm was divided by Frederick Bagg among his five children and two of his key personnel.</p><br>
<p>The Lord Baltimore Hotel is located at 20 West Baltimore Street, on the northeast corner of the intersection with North Hanover Street, and one block west of the main downtown thoroughfare of North Charles Street, in the downtown area of Baltimore, Maryland.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The hotel was designed by William Lee Stoddart and opened on December 30, 1928. The 22 story hotel, designed in the French Renaissance style, has a dark red brick veneer with limestone trim over a steel frame. The building, which is 289 feet tall, is topped with a tower featuring a mansard roof of copper, now aged with a green patina. It replaced the smaller but substantial Hotel Carswell, built shortly after the Great Baltimore Fire of 1904.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, after the Baltimore City Council considered but failed to pass an ordinance prohibiting racial segregation in public accommodations, the Lord Baltimore Hotel voluntarily ended its restrictive guest policies.</p><br>
<p>Following the redevelopment of the downtown area in the 1990s, the hotel is within walking distance of many Baltimore attractions such as the Inner Harbor, Camden Yards, and the National Aquarium.</p><br>
<p>The Lord Baltimore Hotel closed in 1982, needing a major renovation. It was bought by a partnership headed by local developer Saul Perlmutter in 1983 and was renovated in 1985. The partnership filed for bankruptcy in 1987 and the hotel was then taken over from its defunct creditor by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) during the savings and loan crisis of the mid-1980s.</p><br>
<p>The hotel was managed by Radisson Hotels through much of the 1990s as the Radission Plaza Lord Baltimore. The FDIC sold the hotel to Universal Equities, a Washington, D.C. group, in 1992 for $8.5 million. Universal, in turn, sold the hotel in January 1997 for $30 million. The new owners, Davidson Hotels, ended the association with Radisson. The hotel became, for a time the Hilton Baltimore & Towers.</p><br>
<p>The hotel was sold again in 2001 to Carlson, the owners of the Radisson Hotels franchise, regaining its previous name as the Radisson Plaza Lord Baltimore. It was sold to Rubell Hotels of Miami, Florida for $10 million (US) in August 2013. It dropped the Radisson flag and reopened in 2014 as an independent hotel, after undergoing a total remodeling of guest rooms, and restoration of the building&#39;s public spaces.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, the hotel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Lord Baltimore Hotel is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>Bancroft Tower is a 56 ft tower of granite and natural stone, which looks like a miniature feudal castle. It is in Salisbury Park, in the city of Worcester, Massachusetts. The folly was erected in 1900, in memory of George Bancroft, a native of Worcester and a politician, historian, and statesman. The tower was designed by Worcester architects Earle and Fisher, and cost about $15,000 to build. Bancroft Tower is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Bancroft Tower stands northwest of downtown Worcester, in Salisbury Park, a public park west of Park Avenue and south of Drury Lane. It is a two-story stone structure, built of boulders and cobbles, with a rock-faced granite exterior. It is asymmetrical in plan, with crenelated square towers at the corners and a taller, off-center circular tower in between. To one side of that tower is an arched gate.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>This tower was erected by Stephen Salisbury III in honor of George Bancroft, a prominent historian and statesman, who had been a childhood friend of Salisburys father. It was one of three towers built on high points of the city, and is the only one to survive. The park and tower remained in Salisburys ownership until his death in 1907. The tower was bequeathed to the Worcester Art Museum, which gave it to the Worcester Parks Department in 1912. The Bancroft tower was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 5, 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Plaque</h2><br>
<p>A plaque set in the ground in front of it explains its purpose:</p><br>
<p>BANCROFT TOWER</p><br>
<p>THIS TOWER WAS BUILT IN 1900</p><br>
<p>TO HONOR THE MEMORY OF</p><br>
<p>GEORGE BANCROFT</p><br>
<p>1800–1891</p><br>
<p>BORN AT THE FOOT OF THIS HILL</p><br>
<p>HE ROSE TO THE POSTS OF</p><br>
<p>SECRETARY OF THE NAVY</p><br>
<p>FOUNDER OF THE USA NAVAL ACADEMY</p><br>
<p>ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND</p><br>
<p>USA MINISTER TO GREAT BRITAIN</p><br>
<p>AND GERMANY</p><br>
<p>THIS MEMORIAL WAS BUILT BY HIS</p><br>
<p>FRIEND AND ADMIRER</p><br>
<p>STEPHEN SALISBURY III</p><br>
<p>Two half-compasses are set in the ground before and behind the tower. They are marked as if they pointed to the other six of the Seven Hills of Worcester (Bancroft Hill being one of the seven); but it doesn&#39;t appear, from the top of the hill, that they really do.</p><br>
<p>Camp Ruston was one of the largest prisoner-of-war camps in the United States during World War II, with 4,315 prisoners at its peak in October 1943. Camp Ruston served as the "base camp" and had 8 smaller work branch camps associated to it. Camp Ruston included three large, separated compounds for POWs, a full, modern hospital compound, and a compound for the American personnel. One of the POW compounds, located in the far northwestern part of the camp was designated for POW officers. The officer&#39;s compound&#39;s barracks were constructed to house a lesser number of POWs affording more privacy and room for the officers. The enlisted men&#39;s barracks were designed to house a maximum of 50 POWs in two rows of bunks that ran along each side. POW latrines were separate buildings located at the end of each compound.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and WAC use</h2><br>
<p>Camp Ruston was built by the local T.L. James Company under the supervision of the USA Army Corps of Engineers on 770 acre about seven miles (11 km) west of Ruston, Louisiana in 1942. The land was purchased for $24,200, and construction cost $2.5 million. Camp Ruston was originally designated as an "Enemy Alien Internment Camp", a detention facility for internees of Japanese ancestry. Plans for the internment of enemy aliens that may have also included internees of German and Italian ancestries never developed and the need for additional enemy alien internment camps were abandoned. It soon became evident that Camp Ruston&#39;s usage plan would change due to the unexpected number of POWs being housed in Europe needing to be transferred.</p><br>
<p>Because few German prisoners of war in the United States as yet existed, the camp served first as a training center for the Womens Army Corps. In April 1943, the first 500 recruits arrived for basic training, forming the 42nd Womens Army Auxiliary Corps Regiment. Approximately 2,000 WACs trained at the camp over three and one half months. By July 1943 the WAC training center was moved in order to make room for the expected large numbers of POW&#39;s captured in the European and Northern African Theaters.</p><br>
<h2>POW camp</h2><br>
<p>The first 300 POWs, from Field Marshal Erwin Rommel&#39;s elite Afrika Korps, arrived at Camp Ruston in August 1943. By October 1943 the camp reached a peak population of 4,315 prisoners, including 181 officers. After the three original compounds filled, a fourth for officers only was built. The prisoners were perhaps the most ethnically diverse ever seen in Louisiana; besides Germans, captured soldiers of French, Austrian, Italian, Czech, Polish, Yugoslav, Romanian nationalities, and over 100 Russian prisoners were also housed in the camp. One report describes several German soldiers with "Mongol features" and that they required special diets in keeping with their Islamic faith. It was later learned that these "Muhammadans" were from Chechnya.</p><br>
<p>Declassified memos from the Russian POWs to the camp commander indicated that while the Russians were prisoners they volunteered to fight against the Japanese for the Americans. Their request was denied by the Americans and the fate of these Russian POW&#39;s became one of the most unusual stories of Camp Ruston. During the meeting at Yalta, Stalin specifically mentioned these Russian POWs held at Camp Ruston and requested their return to Russia. The US agreed to send these POWs back to Russia and eventually transferred them from Camp Ruston to Camp Dix in NJ for their trip home. The Russian POWs, who fought against Russia as German soldiers, knew their fate if they were to return. Records and news accounts indicate that the Russians rioted and started fires in their barracks at Camp Dix to protest. Two Russian POWs hanged themselves from the barrack rafters rather than face their inevitable fate. After leaving Camp Dix, the trail and story of the remaining Russian POWs from Camp Ruston mysteriously ends.</p><br>
<p>One group of prisoners was treated differently, with not even International Red Cross inspectors allowed to see them. In late July 1944, the captured surviving 56 officers and crew of were sent to the camp and kept in isolation in a restricted area in the NE corner of the camp in order to prevent them from communicating to the enemy that secret German naval codes had fallen into Allied hands. Numerous declassified secret National Archive documents regarding these U-boat POWs are housed in the archives. A copy of Captain Harold Langes log of the U-505s voyage can be found in the archives at Louisiana Tech University. The last entry in the log suggests that Lange actually pre-wrote the evenings entry earlier and before the capture, as his entry stated that on the evening of the 4th everything was calm. The U-505 had been captured earlier in the day of June 4.</p><br>
<p>Records indicate that one American was kept as a POW at Camp Ruston. Ludwig Staudinger, Jr. was born in Germany in 1921. His family left Germany and immigrated to the west coast of the US near Yakima, Washington. As the war in Europe began, the young German Americans allegiance to his mother country drew him into joining the German army prior to Americas entry into the war. He left Yakima and fought in the early years of the war. Staudinger was captured by the English and eventually, this naturalized American, fighting for his mother country found himself a German POW in his naturalized country.</p><br>
<p>A Luftwaffe prisoner stated that while the camp was tough, compared to German standards it was like a vacation. During their incarceration in Camp Ruston, the prisoners benefited from food, medical care, and physical surroundings which were better than what their countrymen were experiencing at home. They ate the same food as their captors; perhaps even better, as several experienced cooks were among them. Prisoners were permitted to purchase snacks and personal items at a canteen, engage in athletic and craft activities, and organize an orchestra, a theater, and a library; KWKH broadcast a concert by the prisoners.</p><br>
<p>Enlisted prisoners were required to work at the camp and for farms and businesses across north Louisiana. They picked cotton, felled timber, built roads, and performed other tasks to help solve the domestic labor shortage caused by the war; cotton picking was perhaps the most difficult. They were paid in scrip which they could use in the camp canteen. There are numerous accounts of POWs and locals meeting and becoming "friends" during their stay. Officers were not required to work but could if they desired. One such case involved Hans Stollenwerk, an Afrika Corp lieutenant, who worked as an assistant to one of the camps civilian accountants. Stollenworks art had been given to the accountant as he left Camp Ruston. The artwork was found in an old barn near Arcadia, Louisiana and donated to the Camp Ruston Foundation nearly 50 years later.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, the War Department began a program to educate prisoners of war throughout the United States in academic subjects and democratic values. One source of books was the library of Louisiana Polytechnic Institute (now Louisiana Tech University). Some prisoners even took correspondence courses from major American universities. Many of the prisoners cite this instruction as the beginning of Democracy in post-war Germany. Contrary to several poorly researched books and videos made about Camp Ruston, the POW&#39;s did not wear their military uniforms during their internment. There were several occasions where POWs were photographed posing in their national uniform for Christmas cards and funerals, but these occasions were very rare at Camp Ruston. Each POW was issued US surplus khaki uniforms with the letters "PW" painted on the back of each shirt and coats as well as the front pant legs of their trousers. This fact was corroborated during interviews of American guards as well as numerous former POWs. A POW issued uniform was donated by a former POW to the Camp Ruston Foundation and is now located in the archives.</p><br>
<p>Only 34 prisoners escaped and remained free for over 24 hours, and only one was never recaptured. The most famous escape was performed by a German soldier named Charly King. Born on Christmas Day in 1921, King, then 24 years old, spoke perfect German, English as well as Spanish and was said to be well educated, possibly an engineer or an architect. He managed to escape from one of Camp Ruston&#39;s branch camp at Bastrop La. and eventually made his way to neutral Mexico where he spent several months. In Mexico, King was involved in a serious truck accident where he spent several months recuperating from his injuries. He eventually hopped a ship back to Germany. According to one of his American guards, King was a pleasant prisoner whom the American guards liked and respected. Based on a Spione interview, the guard remembered that Charly had told him that he needed to return to Germany in order to take care of his mother, whom he feared would fall into Russian hands. The F.B.I. continued to search for him for many years.</p><br>
<p>At least nine prisoners died at Camp Ruston, including a Russian Major. These deaths resulted from previous wounds and illnesses, or, in one case, from an attack by other prisoners. A small cemetery, located at the northeast tip of the property, near what now is the eastbound lane of Interstate 20, remained until all the buried POWs were exhumed and returned to their countries. An unusual story regarding POW deaths occurred when a German POW died at the camp. The Germans requested that the German/Nazi flag be draped over his coffin for his funeral. There were no Nazi flags available, when one female civilian American employee, Myra Roberts of Ruston sewed a Nazi flag for the funeral. The flag was kept by Roberts for many years but was misplaced before it could be saved for the archives. It was also noted that a Russian major had died of a heart attack and was buried in the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The last prisoners left Camp Ruston on 3 February 1946 for repatriation to their native countries, and the camp was closed in June 1946. Most of the POW&#39;s, however, were not immediately repatriated to their native countries for fear of "dumping" all these trained soldiers back into their defeated countries. Many were kept up to two additional years in camps in England, Belgium, and France before being repatriated. Interviews indicated that for many those two years at the hands of their European holders were much worse than their experiences at Camp Ruston. Contrary to some beliefs, only a few POWs remained in the US. The vast majority of POWs were shipped back to Europe and eventually back to their respective countries. A relatively small number of prisoners who were deemed important to the US and wished to stay were offered the opportunity.</p><br>
<p>One story of a POW remaining in the US was that of Ensign Karl Ernst Pfaff. Pfaff was a 21-year-old ensign aboard the German U-boat 234. The U-boats destination was Japan and was under direct orders from Hitler not to surrender. However, on May 14, 1945, 7 days after the German surrender, the U-234 chose to surrender to the US Navy. The U-234 was a treasure trove of information for the US. Loaded on the sub were detailed plans for rockets, a jet plane in a crate as well as over 500 Kilos of Uranium Oxide. Additionally, two high ranking Japanese military officers were on board. They committed suicide rather than being captured. Pfaff, who was a trained engineer and spoke English, was able to help the Americans locate the Uranium which was hidden in a false wall surrounding the conning tower of the sub. According to interviews conducted by Vincent Spione, Pfaff was allowed to stay in the US, gain citizenship and flourished in business until he died in the early 2000s. He had been removed from the rest of the U-234 crew who were sent to Papago Park AZ while Pfaff was sent to Camp Ruston. After securing a job with a major US manufacturing firm, Pfaff recalls visiting the site of his former POW experience on several occasions. Mark Scalia later recounts the capture of the U-234 in his book, Germanys Last Mission to Japan.</p><br>
<p>From 1947 to 1958, the site of the camp served as a state tuberculosis sanatorium, and in 1959, it became the Ruston Developmental Center, a facility for the mentally disabled. Much of the area once populated by prisoner barracks is now part of a livestock facility for Louisiana Tech University. The remaining hospital compound barracks are located next to a student housing complex administered by Grambling State University. only two dilapidated buildings remain, and rough outlines on the ground of others.</p><br>
<p>A number of former POWs eventually returned to the US as immigrants after their return to their native countries. Most of the prisoners had established amicable relationships with the American personnel at the camp and with the local people for whom they worked. Over the years former prisoners returned to Ruston and in 1984 a number of them join local residents in a 40th-anniversary reunion. In 1995 several former POWs returned to Ruston to participate in the Camp Ruston Symposium. During their stay, they confirmed the friendships they had made in Ruston during the war.</p><br>
<h2>Camp Ruston documentation project</h2><br>
<p>In the 1990s, increased efforts were undertaken to preserve the history of Camp Ruston by the state of Louisiana. The project was overseen and led by Vincent Spione. Spione had been working on collecting interviews and artifacts of the camp since meeting a visiting former POW in the summer of 1980. Spione also founded and acted as the president of the non-profit Camp Ruston Foundation. On December 13, 1991, the camps remaining buildings were placed on the National Register of Historic Places, by the state of Louisiana. The four remaining buildings, as well as the site, did not meet the initial requirements for approval due to the site being under the 50-year-old mark. Spione petitioned the committee to waive this requirement for fear that the buildings would be dismantled and was successful in convincing the committee to approve the building and site for inclusion into the NHR. In 1994, Spione worked with Louisiana Tech University and the Ruston Developmental Center to begin the Camp Ruston Documentation Project to collect historical materials concerning Camp Ruston. Funded by the Camp Ruston Foundation and Mercedes Benz, Spione traveled to Germany, Italy, and Yugoslavia where he interviewed numerous former POWs who were housed at Camp Ruston. He had also met with numerous former POWs, camp civilian and military staff as they visited the former site from 1977 until he left Ruston in 2000. His interviews and well as numerous artifacts given to him by the POWs now reside in the Louisiana Tech University archives for safekeeping and to be used by future scholars. Beginning in the late &#39;70s until 2000, Spione continued to manage the project for the Developmental Center. Over those years numerous documents, photographs, paintings, carvings, letters, oral histories, and many other artifacts were collected and kept at the center. A major donation by Mark Scalia of all the National Archive records pertaining to Camp Ruston proved invaluable for researchers. In 2000 all of the collected artifacts were transferred to Louisiana Tech University archives for their safekeeping by the Camp Ruston Foundation and Ruston Developmental Center.</p><br>
<p>During 1994–95, several events and activities were held which brought attention to Camp Ruston. These included an archaeological survey of the Camp Ruston site, conducted by Mark Scalia a Tech graduate student. The archaeological exercise proved to be valuable in its finding of several significant artifacts such as a stone castle built by the German POWs as well as pinpointing and mapping the actual remnants of the original guard towers and water tower. Additional attention in the form of symposiums, talks to regional historical organizations and to schools, appearances on local and national television, exhibits, slide presentations, and provision of material for a taped segment on Camp Ruston for the LPB-TV program “Louisiana: The State We’re In.” added to the interests of Camp Ruston during that period. Several news stories of POWs visiting the site were produced by CBS news as well as international documentaries produced by South German Television and Austrian TV. Spiones visit to the former Yugoslavia, where he conducted rare interviews with former POW&#39;s was documented by the Slovenian newspapers in an extensive story outlining the POW experience as conscripted Yugoslavian soldiers in the German army. A copy of the news story is housed in the archives.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, a second story was produced by LPB on Camp Ruston.</p><br>
<p>In 1998 Spione reviewed declassified National Archives records that listed the capture and internment records of the crew of the captured U-505. It was already known that the crew was kept incommunicado at Camp Ruston but The Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, where the U-505 is displayed had no records of this. The museum had indicated that their information had the crew being kept as POWs in Bermuda. This is true as the captured mariners were initially taken to Bermuda but for only a brief time when they were secretly moved and kept in the far eastern compound of Camp Ruston. Spione shared these declassified documents with the curator of the museums U-505 exhibit. When the museum updated the exhibit they made the appropriate changes that now reflect the updated and more accurate information regarding the 505 crew and their internment at Camp Ruston.</p><br>
<p>In September 2000, the Camp Ruston Foundation transferred all the remaining documents and artifacts from the Developmental Center to the archives at Louisiana Tech for safekeeping and future access by researchers. The records and physical artifacts related to Camp Ruston continue to grow in the archives maintained by the Special Collections Department at Louisiana Tech University. Of the remaining buildings from the camp only several from the original hospital compound and a warehouse remain, however, the owners, the state of Louisiana, have done little to preserve or protect them and recent photographs indicate that they are in very poor condition. All the original POW barracks and compound buildings were demolished not long after the POWs left.</p><br>
<h2>Prominent former POWs</h2><br>
<p>Many of the soldiers interned at Camp Ruston had occupations prior to the war such as doctors, engineers, professors, artist and famous writers. Among those to achieve notoriety after the war were:</p><br>
<p>Heinz Lettau - Luftwaffe major during the war, Lettau emigrated to the USA and became one of America&#39;s preeminent meteorologists and a professor of physics at the University of Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>Alfred Andersch - an Army soldier who deserted to USA forces in Italy, Andersch became Germany&#39;s controversial modern novelist. Andersch wrote his only known non-fiction story, "In Memory of Captain Fleisher," a true account of his friendship and memories of the Jewish, POW camp doctor who Andersch became friends with while interned at the camp.</p><br>
<p>Hans Goebeler - perhaps the most well-known member of the U-505 crew, Goebeler emigrated to the USA after the war. He was a fixture at U-boat events and war memorabilia shows. Goebeler recorded his experiences on the U-505 crew and in Camp Ruston in Steel Boats, Iron Hearts: A U-boat Crewman&#39;s Life Aboard U-505. Spione interviewed Goebeler in Ruston. The oral interview records are now located in the LA. Tech Archives.</p><br>
<p>Karl Pfaff - German naval ensign on the U-234, who was captured and surrendered to the US Navy on 14 May 1945, seven days after Germany surrendered. The U-234 was on a mission to deliver secret weapons and plans to the Japanese who were still at war with the US. Pfaff cooperated with the US authorities and helped them locate a hidden stash of Uranium Oxide on the U-234. Pfaff was separated from the rest of the crew and sent to Camp Ruston. Pfaff was one of the rare POW&#39;s that was allowed to stay in the US without returning to Germany.</p><br>
<p>Hans Stollenwerk - a young Afrika Corp tank Lieutenant. captured in North Africa. He later returned to Cologne Germany to establish a successful manufacturing business in Cologne. During his time at Camp Ruston Stollenwerk drew numerous pictures of automobiles from his childhood. Nearly fifty years after Stollenwerk left Camp Ruston, Vincent Spione was able to find several of his drawings. Spione informed Stollenwerk of this find, sent him copies of the drawing just days prior to Stollenwerk&#39;s death. Spione and Stollenwerk had met in the summer of 1980 while Stollenwerk visited the grounds of the former camp.</p><br>
<p>Cesare Puelli - An Italian officer serving in the elite Italian Officer&#39;s Corp. He was captured in Northern Africa. He was interned at Camp Ruston for part of his POW experience. Puelli was an intellectual and art professor in Italy. Puelli participated in the Camp Ruston symposium and donated numerous items to the Camp Ruston Foundation which are now located at the LA Tech archives. Puelli participated in numerous Camp Ruston Italian POW reunions which were held in Italy.</p><br>
<p>Earnst Paul - One of the several German POW&#39;s that died at the camp and were buried at Camp Ruston. His body was exhumed and returned to Germany after the war.</p><br>
<p>Horst Blumberg- A German Navy sailor, Blumenberg was captured when his U-boat U-664 was attacked by Allied aircraft. Because of his cooperation with American authorities, he was separated from the rest of the crew and interned at Camp Ruston. He was considered a problem prisoner with several escape attempts. After the war, he emigrated to the USA Blumenberg returned to Ruston several times during his later years and donated several items to the Camp Ruston collection at Louisiana Tech University. Blumenberg&#39;s oral history of his dramatic capture and time at Camp Ruston may be found in the archives.</p><br>
<h2>Movies and books</h2><br>
<p>Playing with the Enemy, published by Savas Beatie, is the story of Gene Moore, a young baseball prodigy drafted by the Brooklyn Dodgers. His career is interrupted by World War II and he is assigned to a USA Navy baseball team playing exhibition games to entertain the troops in North Africa. After D-Day, his team is sent to Virginia where the U-505 crew has arrived from Bermuda. The Navy baseball team secretly escorts the submarine crew to Camp Ruston. Moore and his teammates teach the submariners to play baseball. A major motion picture of the same name was under production and was scheduled for release in Fall 2009.</p><br>
<p>Savas Beatie plans to publish a book on the U-505 crew&#39;s internment at Camp Ruston, coinciding with the release of the movie Playing with the Enemy.</p><br>
<p>For a short history of Camp Ruston, see Fish Out of Water: Nazi Submariners as Prisoners of War in North Louisiana During World War II, by Wesley Harris.</p><br>
<p>St. Philip&#39;s Church in the Highlands is an Episcopal church located on New York State Route 9D in the hamlet of Garrison, New York, United States, within the town of Philipstown in the Hudson Highlands. It is a stone Gothic Revival building designed by Richard Upjohn, a congregant of the church, opened in 1865.</p><br>
<p>The church itself has a long and complex history, dating back to colonial times. Its development has paralleled and sometimes spurred that of the Garrison community itself, and it was accepted for listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. However, the church itself objected, and it was not formally added to the Register until 1995.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Colonial era and Revolution</h3><br>
<p>The church was originally established ca. 1770 when St. Peters Church in Peekskill was granted charter by King George III. The wardens, Beverley Robinson and Charles Moore, decided to establish a parish to the north, in the area known as Four Corners, to serve families in that area. After a short period in another church and a parishioners home, a small wooden chapel was built where the present church stands. The current graveyard was also started at the same time. The new complex was possibly named St. Philips in honor of the Philipse family, original patentees of the area and Robinsons in-laws.</p><br>
<p>The Rev. John Doty, the first rector of both churches, left for Nova Scotia after a few years as he was a staunch Loyalist in an area increasingly divided over revolutionary politics. Robinson, too, declined an invitation from his friend John Jay to swear allegiance to the newly created United States, and actively worked to support the British by organizing the Loyal American Legion and coordinating intelligence-gathering efforts. His lands and home were eventually confiscated by the new government of New York, and he left for England after the war, never to return.</p><br>
<p>A similar fate would befall half of St. Philips families, and the church was so despised locally for its Tory associations that legend has it a mob came together to burn it down at one point during the later years. They were supposedly dissuaded from doing so by George Washington himself, who stood at the door and said "That, sir, is my church!" In gratitude the stained glass window in the churchs vestibule depicts him.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Revolution</h3><br>
<p>For the first few years of American independence, the church lay vacant as it and the community began to rebuild. In 1786 William Denning, who had taken over from Robinson as both landowner and warden, had the altar and interior refurbished. Six years later the parish received its first new minister, the Rev. Andrew Fowler, who himself left after a few years to help establish the Episcopal Church in South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>Garrison Union Free School, erected for local families in the 1830s, still stands and has been moved across Route 9D. The church was rebuilt in 1837. In 1840, with Garrison and the church itself becoming populous enough to rival Peekskill and St. Peter&#39;s, the parish was separately incorporated. A board and batten rectory was built in 1854.</p><br>
<h3>New building</h3><br>
<p>A new pastor, the Rev. Charles Frederick Hoffman, arrived in May 1860. The completion of the Hudson River Railroad through nearby Garrison Landing had made the community more accessible to New York City and a desirable place to live for some of the most socially prominent families of the day, many of whom were congregants. Hoffman saw that the growing church needed a new building.</p><br>
<p>His congregation responded. Henry Belcher donated three acres (1.2 ha) for the building and grounds, and others raised $10,000 for its construction. The design came from another worshipper at St. Philips, Richard Upjohn, already famous for Manhattans Trinity Church. The new structure, a one-story Gothic Revival building of gray granite, was finished in 1861 and consecrated the next year.</p><br>
<p>In the decades afterwards, a carriage house and shed were built near the church. At the turn of the century, a parish house was built to the designs of George E. Harney and William S. Purdy, former residents of Cold Spring and architectural partners.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>The early years of the 20th century would be marked by a bitter controversy within the church when a chapel established to the east of the mountains inland became first the site of a monastery and then home to the Graymoor Friars, who left Anglicanism for the Roman Catholic Church in 1909. St. Philip&#39;s insisted it retained title to the land (now at the junction of US Route 9, NY Route 403 and the Appalachian Trail) and it took an act of the state legislature to settle the dispute in favor of the friars. The animosity lingered for many years.</p><br>
<p>The year before the Friars left, St. Philips had received a new rector, the Rev. Edward Clowes Chorley. He wrote a two-volume history of St. Philips and other churches and would, years later, serve as editor-in-chief of Anglican & Episcopal History. While in Garrison he oversaw the installation of electricity and gas lighting in the building and the introduction of a boys choir. Outside the church, Chorley oversaw the replacement of the original rectory in 1911, and then a sextons house six years later. All are today considered contributing properties to the National Register listing. During this time, he also helped to found Garrison&#39;s volunteer fire department.</p><br>
<p>A kindergarten was later established at the church until it was moved into the expanded school facilities in the 1960s, when the nursery school program was established. William Reisman, who began a 27-year tenure as rector that same year, modernized and redecorated many of the buildings, adding protective covers for the stained-glass windows. He also began adult education classes at the church and updated Chorley&#39;s history to the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Under his successor, Francis Geer, the church installed a new pipe organ and replaced the roof and interior floor of the parish house, used as a meeting for many of Garrison&#39;s community groups. A memorial garden was built north of it, to serve as a greeting area after services.</p><br>
<p>The Jefferson Historic District is a historic district in the small community of Jefferson, Alabama, United States. The community was founded in 1810. The district consists of thirteen Greek Revival buildings that were selected for inclusion due to their significance as examples of the pre-Civil War plantation economy of the Deep South. Some of the buildings included in the district are the Lewis Simmons House , James Aldridge House, Basil Grant House , Dr. James Hildreth House , Frederick Westbrook House , W. L. Kelley House, James Richard Bryan House , Jefferson Methodist Church , and Jefferson Baptist Church .</p><br>
<p>Old Main is an academic building on the campus of Wayne State University. It is located at 4841 Cass Avenue in Midtown Detroit, Michigan, on Wayne&#39;s main campus.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Old Main is located on the southwest corner of the intersection of Cass and Warren Ave. in the busy Midtown area of Detroit. Old Main is situated at the southern end of the main campus of Wayne State University, across Warren from the Science Building and just north of the colleges Hilberry Theater. It stands approximately 1.5 miles north of downtown Detroit, one block west of the citys main street, Woodward Avenue, and within less than a mile of three of Detroit&#39;s major freeways, the Chrysler (I-75), the Lodge (M-10), and the Ford (I-94).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building now known as Old Main was originally built as Detroit&#39;s Central High School. Construction of the building began on December 13, 1894. It was built over a three-year period out of brick and limestone quarried from the land directly in front of it. The structure was designed by architects Malcomson & Higginbotham and contained 103 classrooms, laboratories, offices, and space for 2,000 students. The building cost $573,345.13, most of which was paid for by state appropriations and an emergency building fund campaign.</p><br>
<p>Central High School moved to this new location from its previous home in the former Michigan State Capitol building in downtown Detroits Capitol Park, which had burned down in 1893. Central High began classes here in 1896 as the building neared completion. As the number of students grew, a large wing was added to the rear of the building in 1908. In 1913 the high school began offering some college-level courses, and in 1917 the new two-year Detroit Junior College began to operate in the building. In 1923 this would become the four-year degree granting College of the City of Detroit, one of the main precursor institutions of todays Wayne State University.</p><br>
<p>By 1926 the building had become overcrowded and Central High School was moved to its present location at 2425 Tuxedo St. The building was then given over entirely to the college and was renamed as the Main Building. As the college has grown around it and evolved, first to Wayne University in 1934, and then to Wayne State University in 1956, the building came to be affectionately known as "Old Main".</p><br>
<p>As time has passed, many modifications and repairs have been made to the aging structure. During the 1930s and 1940s, new walls, rooms, and other changes were made inside the building. The clock in the tower was replaced in 1934, along with the rest of the building&#39;s clocks that were linked to it. The building was enlarged with a new wing along the Warren Ave. side in 1937. By the 1980s though, falling ceilings, peeling paint, vandalism, a fire, plumbing failures, leaking roofs, and deferred maintenance had taken their toll on Old Main. To remedy the situation Wayne State University launched a fund raising campaign in 1995, and later sought state assistance. As a result, large-scale renovations of the structure were begun that year. Electrical and mechanical systems were replaced, and much of the building restored to its original look.</p><br>
<p>Today, the renovated Old Main serves as the home of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences of Wayne State University as well as accommodating many other classes in a wide variety of subjects. Old Main now reflects the university&#39;s history, growth and development, and is widely seen as the symbol of Wayne State University.</p><br>
<h2>Departments</h2><br>
<p>Planetarium (Basement)</p><br>
<p>Office of the Department of Geology</p><br>
<p>Mineralogy/Petrology Lab</p><br>
<p>Audio Tutorial Lab (Geology 1010 Lab)</p><br>
<p>Structural/Geomorphology Lab</p><br>
<p>Mineral Collections</p><br>
<p>Map Room</p><br>
<p>Library</p><br>
<p>Museum office</p><br>
<p>Archaeology Laboratory</p><br>
<p>Schaver Music Recital hall</p><br>
<p>Recording Studio</p><br>
<p>Maggie Allesee Department of Dance</p><br>
<p>Department of Art and Art History (Partial)</p><br>
<p>Textile Lab</p><br>
<p>Clothing Design</p><br>
<p>Dorothea June Grossbart Historic Costume Collection</p><br>
<p>Interior Design</p><br>
<p>Interiors Library</p><br>
<p>Interior Studio</p><br>
<p>Interior Lighting Lab</p><br>
<p>Fibers</p><br>
<p>Fiber Dye Lab</p><br>
<p>Weaving Studio</p><br>
<p>Fiber Studio</p><br>
<p>Music Technology Lab</p><br>
<p>Piano Lab</p><br>
<p>Prof. Poole Memorial Orchestral Library</p><br>
<p>Large Ensemble Rehearsal Room</p><br>
<p>Jazz Rehearsal Room</p><br>
<p>Painting</p><br>
<p>Drawing</p><br>
<p>Graphic Design</p><br>
<p>Interdisciplinary Electronic Arts</p><br>
<p>Computer Labs</p><br>
<p>Two Theatre Movement Studios</p><br>
<p>Design Studios</p><br>
<p>Dance Studios</p><br>
<p>Music Department Practice Rooms (4th Floor)</p><br>
<p>Editing Suites</p><br>
<p>TV Studio & Control Room</p><br>
<p>Photography Computer Lab</p><br>
<p>Photography Studios</p><br>
<p>Photography Dark Room</p><br>
<p>Photography Lab</p><br>
<p>Lyon Hall, also known as the Lyon-Lamar House, is a historic Greek Revival mansion in Demopolis, Alabama, United States. It was built over a period of three years by George Gaines Lyon and his wife, Anne Glover Lyon. Lyon was an attorney and the nephew of Francis Strother Lyon, who maintained a residence nearby at Bluff Hall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>George Lyon began construction on the house in 1850, it would continue until 1853. Upon completion of the house, they traveled to New York City to furnish it. Lyon descendants lived in the house until the death of George Gaines Lyon Lamar in 1996. The house was donated to the Marengo County Historical Society in May 1997.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The house is a two-story wooden frame structure, sided with clapboard. The front portico features six two-story square columns, constructed in brick with a stucco finish. These columns are very similar to Bluff Hall. The upper balcony spans the entire width of the house and is attached to the columns. The roof is hipped and features a small belvedere at the summit.</p><br>
<p>The Demopolis Historic Business District, currently officially known as Demopolis Historic District, is a historic district in the city of Demopolis, Alabama, United States. Demopolis had its beginnings in 1817 with the Vine and Olive Colony. The historic district is a ten block area, roughly bounded by Capitol Street, Franklin Street, Desnouettes Street, and Cedar Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The district boundaries were increased, and name was changed to the actual one in October 2014.</p><br>
<p>Demopolis Town Square, currently officially known as Confederate Park, is a historic park in the city of Demopolis, Alabama, United States. It is one of the oldest public squares in the state. Demopolis had its beginnings in 1817 with the Vine and Olive Colony, and the park was established in 1819. The park covers one city block, bounded by Main, Capitol, Walnut, and Washington Streets.</p><br>
<p>The park was renamed "Confederate Park" in 1923, at request of United Daughters of the Confederacy.</p><br>
<p>The park contains several historic structures, including a Victorian-era gazebo near the corner of Walnut Avenue and Washington Street, the Demopolis City Hall, built in 1869–70 as a courthouse annex, and the old Presbyterian Church, built in 1843 and now known as Rooster Hall. The former church served as the Marengo County Courthouse from 1868 until 1871, when the county seat was temporarily moved from Linden. The park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on 29 November 1975.</p><br>
<p>Yates Mill is a fully restored, circa 1756 gristmill located five miles  south of downtown Raleigh, North Carolina, United States. It is the centerpiece of Historic Yates Mill County Park, in central Wake County. The park features the restored mill; a visitor center with a museum focused on milling and on the natural history of the area, classrooms, an auditorium and space for research conducted by North Carolina State University faculty and students; a 20 acre lake; and extensive hiking trails. The park is managed as a native wildlife refuge with a mission to study and interpret the park&#39;s cultural, natural and agricultural heritage.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Yates Mill, one of the oldest buildings in Wake County, is the regions only surviving operable gristmill. For nearly 200 years the water-powered mill produced lumber, milled corn and wheat, and carded wool. The land on which the mill is situated was surveyed for Samuel Pearson in October 1756, and granted to him by the Earl of Granville, one of the North Carolina colonys Lord Proprietors. The original mill was built around at that time. Pearson steadily increased his land holdings, and owned more than 600 acre at the time of his death in 1802. In 1819, accumulated debts forced Pearsons son, Simon, to sell the mill and its surrounding acreage at a sheriffs auction. William Boylan, a prominent Raleigh businessman and director of the State Bank, bought the property, and over the next 30 years modernized the mill several times, adding a sawmill in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>In 1853, Thomas Briggs, John Primrose, and James Penny acquired the mill. A decade later, in the midst of the Civil War, the partners sold the mill and surrounding 94 acre to Phares and Roxanna Yates, James Pennys son-in-law and daughter. Pennys involvement in the murder of a Mr. Franklin may have brought on the sale. According to legend, Franklin was a Northern sympathizer who Penny killed for not paying a $700 mill debt. In 1865, Franklins widow supposedly told Federal troops occupying Raleigh that her husbands death was due to his support for the Union. The soldiers tried to burn the mill by setting fire to the entrance. Charred wooden beams today attest to the unsuccessful attempt.</p><br>
<p>Yates and his descendants operated the mill until 1948, when businessman A. E. Finley acquired the property. Finley constructed a retreat lodge by the millpond for the use of his family and employees. Due to lack of demand, however, the old mill was closed in 1953. Ten years later, North Carolina State University acquired the property, consolidating it into a larger tract to be used as an experimental farm. The mill was mainly used for storage until 1989, when Yates Mill Associates was incorporated to marshal its restoration. The mill narrowly escaped destruction in 1996, when rains unleashed by Hurricane Fran burst its 250-year-old stone dam. In 1996, Yates Mill Associates and Wake County Parks, Recreation and Open Space unveiled a public-private partnership to rehabilitate the dam and mill as part of a 574 acre historic and environmental park. Yates Mill is now a designated Raleigh Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The mill stood vacant for several years until Yates Mill Associates, Inc. began restoration efforts in 1988. The mill is an example of the Oliver Evans type of grist mill and has been restored to its state as of the mid-19th century. Both the corn and wheat grinding machinery have been restored. Several corn grindings have been held since the mill officially opened to the public on May 20, 2006. The mill is frequently open for historic tours and corn grinding is demonstrated on specific days.</p><br>
<p>Yates Mill Associates, Inc. restored the mill with donations from governmental agencies, North Carolina State University, foundations, corporations and private citizens. North Carolina State University provided 154 acre on a long-term lease and will use the park for ongoing natural history research.</p><br>
<p>Wake County purchased 16 acre to add to the park and The North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services have provided access to an adjacent parcel of about 400 acre for park use. The Wake County Parks, Recreation and Open Space Department oversaw the development of this 574 acre park. The County supervised the construction of the A.E. Finley Center for Education and Research, and provides the personnel and support needed to operate the park. Yates Mill Associates organizes and finances the maintenance of the mill and its demonstration using private donations and volunteer help.</p><br>
<p>The Thomaston Central Historic District is a historic district in the town of Thomaston, Alabama, United States. Thomaston was founded in 1901, the same year that the B.S. & N.O. Railroad, now CSX Transportation, went through the town. The historic district features examples of Queen Anne and Colonial Revival architecture and is roughly bounded by Chestnut Street, Sixth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, Short Street, and the railroad.</p><br>
<p>Faunsdale Plantation is a historic slave plantation near the town of Faunsdale, Alabama, United States. This plantation is in the Black Belt, a section of the state developed for cotton plantations. Until the USA Civil War, planters held as many as 186 enslaved African Americans as laborers to raise cotton as a commodity crop.</p><br>
<p>A number of the workers&#39; former cabins remain standing, and they are among the most significant examples of slave housing in Marengo County. These cabins are also among the last remaining examples of this building type in the state of Alabama.</p><br>
<p>The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on 13 July 1993, as a part of the historic district associated with the Plantation Houses of the Alabama Canebrake and Their Associated Outbuildings Multiple Property Submission.</p><br>
<h2>Description of house and cabins</h2><br>
<p>The plantation house at Faunsdale Plantation is a simple Greek Revival style, two-story, wood-frame structure with a gabled roof, flanked on each side with one-story gabled wings.</p><br>
<p>The nearby one-room slave cabins date from 1860 and are also wood-frame structures. They have high-pitched gables and scalloped barge boards, which show a Carpenter Gothic influence.</p><br>
<h2>Detailed records of enslaved families</h2><br>
<p>Faunsdale Plantation is one of the few large plantations in Alabama where detailed slave records were kept and preserved as part of the historical record. These records indicate that the Harrison family owned roughly 99 slaves in 1846, a few years after they acquired this property.</p><br>
<p>A list from 1 January 1864 indicates that Harrison&#39;s widow, Louisa, enslaved 186 people, who likely comprised at least 35 families. Unusually, her records also included the surnames used by many of the enslaved people: Barron, Brown, Francis, Harison, Iredell, Mutton, Nathan, Newbern, Paine, Parsons, Richmond, Washington, and Wills. By the end of 1864, 14 of these enslaved people had died of infectious disease, ranging from typhoid fever to measles.</p><br>
<h2>History of owners and the people they held in slavery</h2><br>
<p>The plantation was developed during the 1830s by Bird Pearson and Henry Augustine Tayloe. This area of the state had been ceded by the Choctaw to the United States by the Treaty of Fort St. Stephens in 1816. The owners used enslaved African Americans to clear and develop the lands of the Canebrake.</p><br>
<p>At this time, Tayloe was also acting as the local land agent for his brothers; located in Washington, D.C., and Virginia, they invested deeply in the Canebrake region, buying numerous plantations through him. The brothers were Benjamin Ogle Tayloe of Washington, D.C., who owned Windsor, Sidson and Meadow Hill; William Henry Tayloe of Mount Airy, Virginia, co-owner of Oakland, Adventure (later part of Cuba Plantation), and Larkin plantations; Edward Thornton Tayloe of Powhatan Plantation, co-owner of Oak Grove here; with George Plater Tayloe of Buena Vista Plantation, in Virginia. He also bought land for a nephew, Col. George E Tayloe, owner of Elmwood in Arcola, and co-owner of Walnut Grove on the Demopolis-Uniontown Road.</p><br>
<p>H. A. Tayloe and his brothers were sons of Col John Tayloe III, a wealthy Virginia planter who built the Octagon House in Washington, D.C., for his use in the city. Their grandfather was Colonel John Tayloe II, another wealthy planter, who developed the colonial plantation Mount Airy in Richmond County, Virginia, and had tens of thousands of acres in other farms in Virginia and Maryland. The Tayloes&#39; extensive acquisitions in Alabama demonstrate the economic reach of wealthy planters in the Upper South, to control good lands in the Deep South. In 1947, historian J.W. Dubose wrote that the Tayloes were "considered the most important pioneer cotton planters of the Canebrake, as to the extent of their enterprise there."</p><br>
<p>In 1843, Dr. Thomas Alexander Harrison purchased 960 acres in the Canebrake from Charles City County, Virginia. According to Dubose&#39;s 1947 account, after Harrison acquired his property, which he named Faunsdale Plantation, he no longer practiced as a doctor, but devoted himself to cotton. Harrison named his plantation after Faunus, the ancient Roman deity of the forest, plains, and fields.</p><br>
<p>As was typical of other planters, Harrison brought numerous slaves with him from Virginia. This was part of a forced migration of about one million enslaved African Americans to the Deep South as it was developed.</p><br>
<p>Harrison was said to insist on the enslaved persons saluting him, the men by raising their hats and the women by curtsies. By the 1850s, he wanted to acquire another 340 acres, but initially his neighbor, a Mr. Armstead, was not ready to sell. Harrison happened to see him one morning, when Armstead announced his imminent move to Montgomery, the state capital, to serve as United States Marshal of the District Court, under President Franklin Pierce&#39;s administration. He sold the land to Harrison that the latter wanted.</p><br>
<p>About 1855 Harrison also bought land in Louisiana near the Mississippi River. The bottomland had dense underbrush and trees, and he sent a work party of enslaved people there to start clearing the property.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Louisa Harrison was described as an educated woman, taught privately by a governess and tutor while growing up at her familys plantation of Edenton, Virginia, as was typical for girls of her class. She later attended a girls boarding school in New York for seven years. Dr. and Mrs. Harrison had one child together, a daughter Louise. As an adult, she married her cousin, William B. Shepard of Edenton.</p><br>
<p>After being widowed, Mrs. Harrison built a chapel at Faunsdale for use by the enslaved workers. Her example was followed by other planters in the area: the widow Mrs. McRae of the Athol plantation, also built a slave chapel; both Mr. Bocock of the Waldwic plantation and Mr. Terrell of the Brame plantation also provided them for the people they enslaved. In 1864 the widowed Louisa Harrison married again, to Rev. Stickney, Episcopal minister of St. Michael&#39;s. They lived at Faunsdale.</p><br>
<h2>St. Michael’s Church</h2><br>
<p>In 1844 Harrison and his wife, Louisa, gave 1 acre of their plantation for construction of a log church across from their house. In 1846, Alabama&#39;s first Episcopal bishop, Nicholas Hamner Cobbs, visited Faunsdale Plantation. He noted that Louisa Harrison gave regular instruction to her slaves by reading the church services to them and teaching the catechism to their children.</p><br>
<p>In 1852 the church was renamed as St. Michael&#39;s Episcopal Church. By 1855 the log structure had been replaced by a Gothic Revival-style church building, with likely all the skilled labor provided by enslaved African Americans.</p><br>
<p>A churchyard for burials was established in 1858; Dr. Harrison was the first interment. Beginning in 1860, enslaved persons and, later, freedmen who lived on the plantation were also buried in this churchyard. The church building was moved to the town of Faunsdale in 1888. It was destroyed by a tornado in 1932. The churchyard on the plantation grounds continued to be used as an active burial ground.</p><br>
<p>A sister church to this one, St. Andrew&#39;s Episcopal Church in nearby Prairieville was built in part by master carpenter slaves owned H. A. Tayloe.</p><br>
<p>Fort Ruby, also known as Camp Ruby, was built in 1862 by the United States Army, during the American Civil War , in the "wilderness of eastern Nevada." in the region separated from the larger Utah Territory of 1850-1896, further east, then organized as the brief Nevada Territory of 1861-1864, . It protected both the California Trail and the later Overland Trail westward routes for overland mail and pioneer wagon route for stagecoaches and utilized for the short-lived Pony Express  horse riders with pouches of the United States Mail This was in order to maintain speedier links and communication between residents of the new state of California , on the West Coast on the Pacific Ocean and to the other states of the federal Union in the East. Later by the following year of 1861, the American-based Overland Telegraph Company with its trans-continental line was constructed laboriously at the beginning of the crucial Civil War, using the new 1844 invention of the electric telegraph, and subsequently the first of four transcontinental railroad lines in 1869.</p><br>
<p>The military post was operated 1862 to 1869, in territory dominated by bands of the Western Shoshone natives. The fort was located in the Ruby Mountains at the east entrance to the Overland Pass from Ruby Valley, near the now abandoned ghost town of Hobson on the west side of Ruby Lake. It is also near the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest reservation of the USA Forest Service. Currently in Elko County and adjacent White Pine County of northeastern Nevada.</p><br>
<p>To secure access and safe passage through this area, as well as to provide for construction of railroads and other needs, the USA government signed the Treaty of Ruby Valley in October 1863, with twelve chiefs of the Western Shoshone, who did not cede any territory. The USA also gained permission to conduct gold mining in this territory, as it needed gold in order to wage war against the rebelling southern Confederacy. It promised payments of annuities of $5,000 annually for 20 years to the Western Shoshone, in the form of goods and livestock, but unfortunately failed to make any payments after that first year.</p><br>
<p>The military post site, which at the time contained several surviving log buildings, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, and then five years later added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. Both of the lists being maintained by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>Two of the four landmarked buildings on the site burned in a fire in 1992. Since the "log structures were in poor condition when this site was designated as a Landmark, and they have been altered and deteriorated significantly since designation," continued landmark status is under review by the Department of Interior.</p><br>
<p>The site was transferred from private ownership to federal control in 2002. Since then a joint archaeological venture to explore Fort Ruby&#39;s frontier legacy has been conducted by the USA Fish and Wildlife Service and the USA Forest Service.</p><br>
<p>Leonard Rockshelter, designated 26PE14, is a prehistoric site in the USA state of Nevada that was discovered in 1936. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, qualifying because its well-preserved stratigraphy revealed a long continuum of sporadic cultural occupations from 6710 BC to AD 1400. The site was named after Zenas Leonard, a member of the Bonneville-Walker expedition which passed through the Humboldt Valley in 1833. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Leonard Rockshelter is located on a limestone outcrop in rural Pershing County, Nevada. It is an uplifted dike, whose layers are turned sharply upward, and have since been in part covered by subsequent sedimentary deposits. The formation yields a sheltered area facing north, with scree slopes of tufa limestone eroded from the formation below it. Portions of the sheltered area have been obscured by rock falls from above, making archaeological excavation or analysis difficult.</p><br>
<p>The area first attracted archaeological attention in 1936, when guano miners recovered artifacts from the site, including shell beads, feathers, and wooden projectiles. The following year, a team from the University of California at Berkeley spent two days at the site, collecting a larger number of samples. Some of these were later radiocarbon dated to between 6710 and 5088 BCE. Further analysis has indicated that there were at least three distinct periods of occupation in prehistory, in addition to historic artifacts from the 19th century. One find dating to c. 3500 BCE was of an infant burial in a basket that had become complete carbonized over time. The oldest dated finds at the site are to c. 9249 BCE, not long after the recession of prehistoric Lake Lahontan from the region.</p><br>
<p>Camp Parapet was a Civil War fortification at Shrewsbury, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, a bit more than a mile upriver from the current city limits of New Orleans.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The fortification consisted of a Confederate defensive line about a mile and 3/4 long stretching from the Mississippi River northward to Metairie Ridge. (The area farther north from the ridge to Lake Pontchartrain was at the time swampland.) This was intended to protect the city of New Orleans from Union attack from upriver. As the Union fleet took the city by sailing in from below, the fortification was never used. After the capture of New Orleans, USA forces garrisoned and expanded the fortifications to defend against a Confederate counter-attack, which never came.</p><br>
<p>Under Union control, the Camp lay in the district of Brigadier General Thomas W. Sherman. In late-September 1862, Halbert E. Paine, captain of the 4th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, assumed command of the camp. George H. Hanks, a lieutenant in the 12th Connecticut Infantry Regiment was detailed as aide-de-camp for Sherman for the superintendence of the many contraband arriving at the camp. He organized six colonies at Camp Parapet each led by a non-commissioned officer and directed black labor in the repair and fortification of the camp and surroundings. This scheme was expanded under Hanks to become the Bureau of Negro Labor, which was one of the organizations which would eventually become the Freedmens Bureau. Companies C and H of the 42nd Regiment Infantry Massachusetts Volunteers, serving on engineer service, were assigned to Camp Parapet on January 15, 1863 under Senior-Captain Leonard and Major D. C. Houston, chief engineer, Department of the Gulf (XIX Corps). Steps were taken in March to begin organizing and enlisting men from Camp Parapet to form the 1st Regiment Louisiana Engineers. The regiment was mustered into service April 28, 1863 and consisted of 12 companies of sixty men each in three battalions under command of Colonel Justin Hodge. Thirteen enlisted men of the 42nd Mass. Vols. were promoted to officers a month later after receiving their commissions. The 1st Regiment Louisiana Engineers would later be split in two to form the 1st and 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps dAfrique (95th and 97th USAC.T.).&lt;Bosson, Charles P., History of the Forty-Second Regiment Infantry Massachusetts Volunteers, Book on Demand Ltd., 2013</p><br>
<h2>Remains</h2><br>
<h3>Powder magazine</h3><br>
<p>The only remaining structure of the fortification is the powder magazine, of brick enclosed in an earth mound. It is located off Causeway Boulevard near the American Legion Post 267, preserved in a small park and added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 24, 1977.</p><br>
<h3>Cemetery site</h3><br>
<p>Nearby is the historic Shrewsbury (Camp Parapet) Cemetery, the site of the camp&#39;s cemetery, where 7,000 Union bodies were once interred before being moved to Chalmette National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Fort Missoula was established by the United States Army in 1877 on land that is now part of the city of Missoula, Montana, to protect settlers in Western Montana from possible threats from the Native American Indians, such as the Nez Perce.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1888, the fort was home to the famous Buffalo Soldiers of the 25th Infantry Regiment (3rd Formation). While stationed at Fort Missoula, this unit tested the practicality of soldiers traveling by bicycles by conducting numerous training rides, with one ride all the way to St. Louis, Missouri. The Trans-America Bicycle Trail established in 1976 goes through Missoula, and covers some of the routes pedaled by the 25th Regiment.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, Fort Missoula housed an internment camp for Italian detainees, who called the area Bella Vista, and Japanese Americans arrested as "enemy aliens" after Pearl Harbor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th Century</h3><br>
<p>Fort Missoula was established as a permanent military post in 1877 and built in response to requests of local townspeople and settlers for protection in the event of conflict with western Montana Indian tribes. It was intended as a major outpost for the region; however, area residents also were quite aware of the payroll, contracts, and employment opportunities Fort Missoula would provide. Fort Missoula never had walls; rather, it was an "open fort," a design common for posts located west of the Mississippi. Open forts required troops to take the offensive and actively patrol the areas to which they were assigned.</p><br>
<p>Two companies of the 7th Infantry arrived June 25, 1877 to build a post for a single infantry company. Construction had barely begun when the Company Commander, Captain Charles Rawn, received orders to halt the advance of a group of non-treaty Nez Perce Indians. The Nez Perce, led by Chiefs Joseph, Looking Glass and others, simply went around the soldiers&#39; hastily constructed earth and log barricade in Lolo Canyon (later called "Fort Fizzle") and escaped up the Bitterroot Valley.</p><br>
<p>The soldiers from Fort Missoula, along with other elements of the 7th Infantry and local civilians, attacked the Nez Perce camp at the Battle of the Big Hole, and were defeated and besieged. Capt. William Logan, second in command at Fort Missoula, was killed. After the battle, four companies returned to Fort Missoula. In September 1877 Gen. William T. Sherman visited the fort and recommended expanding the one company post to a battalion-sized post. The 7th Infantry troops were replaced by a battalion of the 3rd Infantry in November 1877. The troops from the 3rd Infantry constructed the majority of Fort Missoula, and also repaired 100 miles of the Mullan Road from Missoula to the Idaho border.</p><br>
<p>The 25th Infantry Regiment arrived at Fort Missoula in May 1888. The regiment was one of four created after the Civil War that were made up of black soldiers with white officers. In 1896, Lieutenant James Moss organized the 25th Infantry Bicycle Corps to test the military potential of bicycles. The corps undertook several short journeysup the Bitterroot Valley by bicycle to deliver dispatches, north to the St. Ignatius area, and through Yellowstone National Parkbefore making a 1,900 mi trip from Fort Missoula to St. Louis in 1897. The Army concluded that while the bicycle offered limited military potential, it would never replace the horse. The 25th Infantry returned to Missoula by train. When the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, the 25th was one of the first units called to fight. The regiment served bravely in Cuba and the Philippines, but was reassigned to other posts after the war&#39;s end.</p><br>
<h3>20th Century</h3><br>
<p>The efforts of Congressman Joseph Dixon of Missoula led to the appropriation of $1 million in 1904 to remodel Fort Missoula. A modern complex of concrete buildings with red tile roofs was constructed between 1908 and 1914, including a new Officer&#39;s Row, barracks, and Post Hospital.</p><br>
<p>The fort was used as a military training center to train truck drivers and mechanics of the Student Army Training Corps (SATC) during World War I, but was almost abandoned by 1921. However, it was designated as the Northwest Regional Headquarters for the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1933. Fort Missoula served as the administration, training, and supply center for dozens of CCC camps in Montana, Northern Idaho, Glacier National Park, and Yellowstone National Park until June 1942.</p><br>
<p>Fort Missoula was turned over to the Department of Immigration and Naturalization in 1941 for use as an alien detention center for non-military Italian men (merchant seamen, World&#39;s Fair employees, and the crew of an Italian luxury liner seized in the Panama Canal). Fort Missoula housed over 1,200 Italian internees, who referred to the fort as "Camp Bella Vista." The Italians worked on area farms, fought forest fires, and worked in Missoula until they were released in 1944. Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, 650 Japanese-American men who were considered high risk were interned at the camp. These men were questioned and quickly transferred to other internment camps.</p><br>
<p>The camp was used as a prison for military personnel accused of military crimes and other personnel awaiting court-martial following World War II. After the post was decommissioned in 1947, many of the buildings were sold, dismantled, and removed from the site. For a number of years, Fort Missoula was a subinstallation under the accountability of Fort Carson, Colorado. The majority of the land is now in the hands of non-military agencies, including the USA Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and Missoula County (including the Historical Museum at Fort Missoula). Fort Missoula was formally decommissioned in April, 2001.</p><br>
<p>Hawkins House, later known as Sierra Nevada Museum of Art, is a historic home in Reno, Nevada. It was designed in a colonial revival style by Elmer Grey for Prince A. Hawkins, a scion of the well-established Hawkins family, in 1911. It is now the offices of the Nevada Interscholastic Activities Association .</p><br>
<p>It is adjacent to the Francis G. Newlands House, a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>From 1978 to 1988, the building housed the Sierra Nevada Museum of Art, now known as the Nevada Museum of Art.</p><br>
<p>The Hamilton White House is a historic home in Syracuse, New York. The house, Greek Revival in design, was built by and for Hamilton White, circa 1840/42, and occupied by his family in 1842/43. Many believe based on similarities in structure and style that the unknown architect and builder was the same person who designed and built the Moses Burnett House, completed in early 1842, later to become the Syracuse Century Club building. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 due to its significance in the area of architecture and its relationship, through Hamilton White, to the commerce and politics of Syracuse. It is currently a commercial property with several offices.</p><br>
<h2>Hamilton White</h2><br>
<p>Hamilton White (1807—1865) lived at the White House until his death; his family retained ownership until 1911/12, although the building briefly housed the Kanatenah Club. The house is the last of a number of National Register of Historic Places-listed residential structures, in original construction and exterior, remaining in the immediate vicinity of downtown, along the citys Fayette (later, Firemans) Park. In 1976 it was purchased by an investment group and converted into business offices. In 2002, it was sold to a private environmental firm, but remains offices for lawyers and other small businesses.</p><br>
<h3>Family background</h3><br>
<p>The White family was prominent in central New York. Hamilton White was the third son of John (also referred to as Asa) White, a farmer and gristmill owner in Homer. Hamilton White became a lawyer, farmer, investor and businessman, and moved to Syracuse after a legal apprenticeship in Buffalo, with his wife Sarah Randolf Rich. Together, they raised five children. White co-founded the Syracuse Bank, the Syracuse Coarse Salt Company (Syracuse was a principal supplier of salt in America), and became trustee for and investor in both the Erie Canal and the New York Central Railroad, as well as numerous commercial businesses, some that he founded.</p><br>
<p>He was active in numerous community leadership roles, especially religious and social-welfare issues. He was a leading philanthropist, he, his family and descendants supporting many community, religious and civic organizations: including founding or co-founding Syracuse Universitys Crouse College, Cornell University; St. Pauls Episcopal Cathedral and its two predecessor churches, the first AEM Zion church in Syracuse, Grace Episcopal Church in Cortland NY and donated (funded) one of the nine back chapels in St John the Devine Cathedral in New York City; also funded the Orphans Home, now Elmcrest Childrens Home, and the Syracuse Home Association, originally a multi-faith consortium to provide community and social services, especially for the poor, now a provider of long-term healthcare and elder-care services.</p><br>
<p>The family supported the abolishment of slavery, quietly funding black churches and the underground railroad and recruited national speakers to visit Syracuse during the 1850s. He also supported the efforts of Dr. Samuel May, the founder of May Memorial Unitarian Universalist Church.</p><br>
<p>The local United Way leadership campaign, the Hamilton White Society, is named for the familys philanthropy and community development support. Created in 1988, The Hamilton White Society is the United Ways national model for leadership in small and medium-sized communities.</p><br>
<h2>Hamilton Salisbury White</h2><br>
<p>The most prominent of his five children, Hamilton Salisbury White (1853–1899), was born in the house. He was a lawyer, real estate owner, investor, and businessman, who dedicated his life to be a professional firefighter, and later became a city fire commissioner. He funded his own fire company becoming the first paid and professional firehouse in the world. Among White&#39;s many contributions to safety and equipment design, White is also acknowledged for first initiating the concept of "response time" into firefighting and life-saving techniques.</p><br>
<h3>Early life</h3><br>
<p>Hamilton White&#39;s interest in firefighting started at an early age. As early as age four, he boarded his pony cart in the stables behind the house and rushed out to watch the volunteer firefighters of the city; watching their efforts shaped his future life. Later, as a student at Cornell University, he stabled a horse outside his dorm room, so he could visit fires and watch the volunteer firemen in Ithaca, NY.</p><br>
<h3>Firefighting</h3><br>
<p>After graduation from Cornell, Hamilton S. White returned to Syracuse, developed the citys first public, mechanical and electric fire alarm systems, copied after Ithacas mechanical system, and built his firehouse at the former 400 Genesee Street, close to the family house. Here, he boarded and trained his fire company, provided all the firefighters equipment and support, paid the mens salaries, and educated the company in science and techniques of building construction/structural design, fire science and basic chemistry, since many fires were chemically based. He continually focused on the firefighters&#39; education and improvement in what he regarded as a "science of firefighting." His company worked seven days on, seven off.</p><br>
<p>He is credited with re-designing the firefighters "turnout suit," creating the first second-floor dormitory with the "firemans pole" for fast access to the engine from the dormitory sleeping quarters, integrating the world&#39;s first electric/mechanical alarm system into the firehouse, as well as numerous other safety inventions.</p><br>
<p>He integrated the alarm system into the door-gate using counterweights to lower the horse collars, also counter-weighting the sheets and blankets into the dormitory fly-space (the reason early firehouses had high ceilings), lined horse stalls with plush carpeting, and provided a library as well as a custom carved pool table for the men&#39;s recreation.</p><br>
<p>White is credited with the first practical use of the concept of "response time". Others have also taken credit with the original idea, but White challenged his company (who were mostly second sons of farmers) to arrive at a reported fire site before he could ride from his home or a community event to the fires location, usually under five minutes. The normal arrival period for volunteers was 20 or more minutes. White, himself, would arrive at a fire, dressed in his turnout and equipment, before his company, coming from his home or a community function. He had realized the importance of early arrival in saving lives and property. That he recognized this imperative and used his firehouse as a training center for fire fighting technique and sciences resulted in his being characterized as the first "gentleman fireman" and the "worlds first professional firefighter".</p><br>
<h3>Death</h3><br>
<p>Ironically, White died in 1899 fighting a downtown chemical fire at the Syracuse Optical Company - most probably from a heart attack induced by toxic fumes from burning chemicals stored in the rear of the structure. He died at the nearby Dawson&#39;s Pharmacy in downtown Syracuse.</p><br>
<p>A memorial to Hamilton Salisbury White was unveiled in Fayette Park on June 27, 1905. The park, and the memorial, stand directly opposite White&#39;s boyhood home.</p><br>
<h2>Later history</h2><br>
<p>The White family remained in the house until 1911; the property was sold out of family ownership in 1912 and later belonged to a neighboring church and various businesses. Detailed information on both the house and White family is available in the Onondaga Historic Association.</p><br>
<p>The park across from the house (Fireman&#39;s Park, but known by its original name of Fayette Park) was used to fence in farm animals for the several park-side residences. It was later converted to a city park and today is the site of a number of statues and monuments to fallen firefighters, including the Hamilton White Monument, designed by Gail Sherman Corbett and built in 1904. Sherman, a native Syracusean, was one of the first independent female architects and designers in the US.</p><br>
<h3>The White family</h3><br>
<p>Other prominent family members included: Horace K White (banking, salt industry), Horace White, II (NYS Senator, Lt. Governor, Governor), Howard Ganson White (Syracuse Standard newspaper founder/publisher), Adelaide, wife of Hamilton S. (singer, inventor), Jane Antoinette White Swift Sherman (patron of arts, music, founder of Morning Musicals), Hamilton Howard White (founder of Hamilton White Insurance Company, real estate), Kathrine Cook White (pioneer radio broadcaster), Andrew Dickson White (diplomat, ambassador, Cornell University&#39;s co-founder and first president), Andrew White Swift (painter), Hamilton Swift (editor Syracuse Journal), Andrew White Swift II (news critic), Ernest I White, an attorney and Syracuse University Law School sponsor/funding, Hamilton White Wright (travel writer, playwright, US/European amateur golf champion), Hamilton S White, Esq (Syracuse law firm Hancock & Estabrook) and Hamilton S White, Jr. (banking, law, corporate governance, enterprise risk management).</p><br>
<p>The family owned a number of historic landmark buildings: The Hamilton and Horace White Memorial Building (1876), the original property at the current Chimes Building, the White House/Farm (later, Onondaga Golf and Country Club and the Lyndon Golf Courses), five historic mansions, three along Syracuse&#39;s prestigious James Street and two more in the nearby village of Fayetteville, New York, and various commercial properties throughout downtown Syracuse.</p><br>
<p>At his death in 1899, Hamilton Salisbury White also left his widow, Adelaide, 46 residential properties designed or rebuilt by renowned architect Ward Wellington Ward, plus other homes built by other well known local architects. White bought these properties from fire victims, rebuilt them at his personal cost, and allowed the victim families rent-free use, until those former owners could in turn repurchase them at cost, or chose to move to other quarters.</p><br>
<p>HamiltonWhiteHouse2sm.jpgCorner detail</p><br>
<p>HamiltonWhiteHouse3sm.jpgSide view</p><br>
<p>HamiltonWhiteHouse4sm.jpgAnother view</p><br>
<p>The White Memorial Building is a Gothic-style building prominently located on the main downtown street of Syracuse, New York. It was designed by Joseph Lyman Silsbee.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>It is built primarily of Ohio sandstone blocks and red brick, plus Onondaga limestone along the base. Lines of cement were black, and there are occasional lines of black brick, providing "sharp dissimilatudes" which are "yet exceedingly pleasant to the eye", according to an 1876 review. The style is Gothic overall, though the roof is termed French.</p><br>
<h2>The White family</h2><br>
<p>The Whites were a prominent local family which included financier and railroad magnate Horace White (1802-1860), his wife Clara Dickson White, and their sons Andrew Dickson White, co-founder of Cornell University, and Horace Keep White. The White family owned the Syracuse National Bank, whose building was the largest in Syracuse at the time, and also designed by Silsbee.</p><br>
<p>The White Memorial Building was commissioned by Horace K. and Andrew Dickson White and dedicated to the family patriarch Asa White (b.1774). Andrew in particular had a keen interest in architecture and worked closely with Silsbee on the building, modeling it after buildings in Manchester, England.</p><br>
<p>The Harriet May Mills House or Harriet May Mills Residence is a historic home on the west side of Syracuse, New York. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. Extensive information on the restoration of the home and its former owners is archived on the now-defunct website.</p><br>
<p>Charles de Berard Mills and Harriet Ann Mills were abolitionists. She was the first female to run for a major statewide office as a candidate of a major political party, running for New York State&#39;s Secretary of State in 1920.</p><br>
<p>The Aetna Springs Resort is a historic resort located in Pope Valley in the north eastern part of Napa County, California, United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>It was named after a nearby hot spring. The spring was so named by the owner of the Aetna Mines, John Lawley, when he discovered the spring in the 1880s.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Aetna springs was founded by Chancellor Hartson in 1877. The resort and spa were originally developed by San Francisco advertising executive Len D. Owens who began development of the resort in 1891 after he purchased the property for $35,000 in the 1870s and quickly became a popular summertime destination for vacationers from San Francisco and Hollywood. Owens was Frances Marion&#39;s father. At one time there was a local post office in Napa County called Lidell, California that was named after William H. Lidell, the lessee of Aetna Springs.</p><br>
<p>One of the first golf courses west of the Mississippi River was built on the resort&#39;s property in 1891. George Heibel, bought the resort from Owens in 1945. In 1966 Ronald Reagan announced his intention to run for the office of Governor of California in the dining hall at the resort. Heibel sold the resort to Environmental Systems in 1972. The resort again sold in 1976 to New Educational Development Systems, a nonprofit corporation associated with the Unification Church.</p><br>
<p>On June 9, 2009 it was announced that the Aetna Springs Resort would close. Snell Valley lies to the north of Aetna Springs. In early 2012 the Napa County Planning Commission approved plans to renovate existing 28 structures and build a new lodge on the property. The resort property was sold to Alchemy Resorts in 2018. In August 2020, Aetna Springs was evacuated due to the Hennessey Fire, which resulted in the burning of over 315,000 acre in five counties, including in Aetna Springs. In 2023, it was announced that the resort will be restored as Six Senses Napa Valley, with a reopening set for 2026.</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>Aetna Springs is the locale of Frances Marion&#39;s Valley People, a book of short stories published in 1935.</p><br>
<p>The General Nathanael Greene Homestead, also known as Spell Hall, is a historic house at 50 Taft Street in Coventry, Rhode Island. It was the home of American Revolutionary War general Nathanael Greene from 1770 to 1776, and was owned afterwards by his brother Jacob Greene and his wife Margaret. The house is owned and operated by the General Nathanael Greene Homestead Association, a non-profit organization, and was opened as a museum in 1924.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The house is a -story wood-frame structure with a gable roof, two interior chimneys, and clapboarded exterior. It is five bays wide and two deep, with a center entry framed by pilasters and topped by a transom window, triangular pediment, and carved fanlight motif. The house follows a typical late-Georgian center-hall plan, with four rooms on each level, two on either side of the central hall. On the lower level, the front right room housed Nathanael Greene&#39;s 300+ volume library, while the rear room served as the kitchen. The rooms on the left served as parlor and dining room. There are four bedrooms on the second floor, and the attic space was later also converted into bedrooms.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was built by Nathanael Greene in 1770, part of a property encompassing 2,000 acre, and served as his family&#39;s home through the Revolutionary War. In 1783 Greene moved the family to Newport, before eventually relocating to Georgia, where he died in 1786. This house he sold to his brother Jacob. It remained in Greene family hands until 1899, although it became run-down and was used as a tenement house in the later years. In 1919 the Nathanael Greene Homestead Association was formed to restore and care for the property. It is now a house museum, open to the public. The Greene family members have also helped keep the home historic throughout the years.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972, and was included in the Anthony Village Historic District in 2010.</p><br>
<p>The Willard Asylum for the Chronic Insane is a former state hospital in Willard, New York, United States, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 1865 the Legislature authorized the establishment of The Willard Asylum for the Insane. Opened in 1869, the asylum offered low-cost custodial care. The Willard drug treatment center was opened in 1995 on the campus of the former Willard Psychiatric State Hospital, a facility for mental patients.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, some 400 suitcases that were brought in by the patients were discovered in an asylum attic.</p><br>
<p>Watervliet Shaker Historic District, in Colonie, New York, is the site of the first Shaker community, established in 1776. The primary Shaker community, the Mount Lebanon Shaker Society, was started a bit later. Watervliet&#39;s historic 1848 Shaker meetinghouse has been restored and is used for public events, such as concerts.</p><br>
<p>The founder of the Shakers, Mother Ann Lee, is buried here.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, and the listing was expanded later in the same year. Albany International Airport was constructed on the community&#39;s herb garden.</p><br>
<p>At the time it was founded it was located in the Town of Watervliet, which went out of existence in 1896. Since then it has been in the Town of Colonie, not even close to the boundary of the modern City of Watervliet.</p><br>
<h2>Community</h2><br>
<p>The Shakers, who believed that spiritual ties were more significant than blood relationships, organized the community at Watervliet into four large "families," each of which formed an independent, self-supporting unit with its own buildings, although all members worshiped in the same meetinghouse. They were known as the "Church," "North," "West," and "South" families. At its high point, the community had 350 members and 2,500 acre of land.</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th-century, a custody battle involving a father who had gone to live at Watervleit with his minor child was widely publicized. The negative publicity caused the Shakers to establish a rule that married persons would not be accepted into Shaker communities unless both partners agreed to enter.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The original buildings were log cabins; however, the oldest surviving buildings date to 1820. Each "family" house had a basement, 3 living floors, and an attic. Kitchens, including the large kitchens for baking and canning, were located in the basement. Each house had a wing for "sisters" and a wing for "brothers," with separate staircases; the wings were separated by a large hall. Not only bedrooms, but sitting rooms were separate. Both sexes shared the dining and meeting rooms, but sat on opposite sides of the room. Typically, 2 to 6 Believers of the same sex shared a bed chamber. The buildings of the North family burned to the ground in 1920. Other buildings were lost to neglect, or torn down over the years. 22 buildings survive.</p><br>
<p>Collectively, the buildings at Watervliet are regarded as among the finest and best preserved surviving Shaker buildings.</p><br>
<h3>Meeting House</h3><br>
<p>The 1848 meetinghouse replaced a 1791 meetinghouse. It is a plain, wooden building decorated according to the Shaker rule that "Meetinghouses should be painted white without, and of a bluish shade within." It was the only white building in the community, since, according to Shaker rules, "no buildings may be painted white, save meeting houses." Three doors on the building&#39;s northern side provide separate entrances tor the brothers, the sisters, and the members of the ministry, who used the center door. The meetinghouse was located in the center of the village and it served as the home of the ministers. The austere interior provided a large floor space for the dancing that was a central part of Shaker worship.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The Watervliet Shakers, like all Shaker communities, were almost self-sufficient, raising their own food and producing their own clothing and machinery. They purchased a limited range of goods from outsiders, principally iron, which they worked into hardware and tools in their own workshops.</p><br>
<p>Each village also produced market goods for outside sale. The Watervliet Shakers had a tannery, produced brooms for sale in volume, and had a small industry manufacturing brass, steel and silver writing pens, but they are most noted in business history as having been among the first producers of garden seeds as a commercial product in the United States and the first Shaker community to have produced and sold seeds. It has been claimed that a member of this community, Theodore Bates, invented the flat broom, older brooms having been fashioned as round bundles of broom corn straw or twigs.</p><br>
<h3>Seed business</h3><br>
<p>The Watervliet seed business is known to have been highly profitable at least as early as 1811.</p><br>
<p>The Edwin H. Armstrong House, in Yonkers in Westchester County, New York, is unusual for having achieved listing on the National Register of Historic Places and even designation as a National Historic Landmark, only to be demolished. Its subsequent removal from National Historic Landmark status is the only such occurrence for a New York State site.</p><br>
<p>It was the home of Edwin H. Armstrong, inventor of two circuits that are the basis of modern telecommunication systems, and also inventor of wide-band frequency modulation (FM) radio.</p><br>
<p>The home, a Queen Anne house, was located at 1032 Warburton Avenue in Yonkers.</p><br>
<p>It was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 7, 1976. It was demolished in 1983 after suffering fire damage. It was subsequently de-designated as a National Historic Landmark and delisted from the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Abbott Farm Historic District is a National Historic Landmark archaeological site in New Jersey. It is the largest known Middle Woodland village of its type on the East Coast of the United States. Significant evidence suggests that the Delaware River floodplain was occupied by Paleoindian people for a long period. It was inhabited between 500 BC and 500 AD. It has been a source of controversy and debate around early development.</p><br>
<p>The district encompasses some 2,000 acre of marshlands and bluffs in southern Mercer County and northern Burlington County, in the communities of Hamilton Township, Bordentown, and Bordentown Township. The John A. Roebling Memorial Park, part of the Abbott Marshlands, provides access to both historic sites and nature habitats in the area. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Abbott Farm Archeological Site on December 8, 1976 for its significance in prehistory and science.</p><br>
<p>The importance of this site was established in the late 19th century by Charles Conrad Abbott, an archaeologist whose farm was located on one of the bluffs overlooking the marshlands. Abbotts finds on his farm, published in 1876, sparked a debate about when humans first arrived in the area, and consequently had significant influence on the direction of later archaeological work. Many finds from the site are at Harvard Universitys Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, for which Abbott served as assistant curator for many years.</p><br>
<h2>Historic sites</h2><br>
<p>In addition to its archaeological importance, the area includes historically important buildings and transportation-related structures, such as:</p><br>
<p>Bow Hill – Hamilton Township</p><br>
<p>Isaac Watson House – Hamilton Township</p><br>
<p>Point Breeze – Bordentown</p><br>
<p>The McKean site is an archaeological site in Crook County, Wyoming, United States. A premier site of the Great Plains hunting cultures, it is the namesake of the "McKean Complex." Two significant contemporary sites of the same culture are Signal Butte in Nebraska and the LoDaisKa site in Colorado.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the McKean site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
